g. Summary of findings

I have researched five completely different methods, but they are all built on the same principles. All stand out from the ‘traditional’ method, because of the explicit role they reserve for the development of musicianship skills. All methods certainly do contain elements of the Kodály concept, as is shown in the table below.

Skills and tools

Singing and the use of relative solmisation, key features in Kodály musicianship, are well represented in all the methods. What strikes me is, that none of the methods pays attention to the question: hów to sing? There is hardly any separate attention for the development of (quality) singing as a musical skill. From my observations I know that in the Colourstrings Kindergarten there is a lot of training in singing, and most of the Colourstrings pupils I observed were able to sing in tune. In the observed instrumental lessons though, the singing appeared rather rarely, and only to solve intonation problems by singing on solmisation syllables. It seems to me that the singing is not a structural part of the instrumental lessons, not to the extent to which it is probably meant to be.

The author of the piano method With Music In Mind does also pay attention to singing. In the teachers’ guide, there is a paragraph dedicated to singing. But she does not give a methodological line to work on the development of the singing voice, or any practical solutions when children experience difficulties. She just states that they will learn how to sing over the course of the lessons. The other methods either assume that children can sing, or trust that their methodology will teach them on the go. I am a little sceptic about this, because from my experience this is not evident.

The methods are all broadly in line in terms of solmisation and the order of the syllables. There seems to be a tight link to the original Kodály-related ideas, such as starting from ‘so-mi’, and developing from the pentatonic scale towards the diatonic scale. The introduction of solmisation in its own right is left to the teacher. The authors might assume that children have visited a preparatory class, or they have good confidence in the teachers who will use their methods. In the Colourstrings Kindergarten, I saw solmisation and handsigns being prepared through singing games and listening activities. But for the books: if you just use the method book, there is a great danger that the ‘naming’ will happen too early. For a prepared introduction of solmisation, there is the need for a set of methodological steps. These steps, I found, were not included in the method books. May be the Kodály-influenced instrumental teacher gets blind to the possible absence of prior experience in relative solmisation?

Handsigns are used by all methods. Again, I saw them introduced in a Colourstrings Kindergarten class in an organic way, and they were frequently used in the musicianship classes. In the cello lessons I did not see any handsigning. In the Colourstrings method books the signs are given only in the back of book A. In the introduction on Book B, signs are not mentioned. In the other methods, the handsigns are mostly given with the solmisation names. What I missed was the chance to use the handsigns for the extra purpose of preparing staff-notation. On an unconscious level, this will help anyway to develop a spatial perception of the sounds, but linked directly to the contour of the note heads on the stave, this could reinforce the reading.

The development of the skill of keeping a steady beat is addressed by all the methods, but with little variety. Only one method, My Solfa Recorder Book, includes physical movement in a broader sense to experience steady beat. The other methods have a narrower approach, like, for instance, ‘tapping’ the beat (The Essential String Method and The Singing Instrumentalist), or ‘walking’ and ‘conducting’ the beat (With Music In Mind). In the Colourstrings books there is almost nothing mentioned about beat. This concept is prepared thoroughly in the Kindergarten classes. In Colourstrings, the instrumental branch seems to depend significantly on the preparation in these classes, but I would have expected to see more overlap, especially in the group lessons. My Solfa Recorder Book and With Music In Mind are the only methods representing the beat graphically by respectively heart-shaped-figures and drawn footsteps.

Concerning rhythm, all methods follow the Kodály-method quite closely. They have a developmental approach, starting with ‘ta’ and ‘titi’ (or ‘tete’) and the quarter rest. Rhythm syllables and rhythmic stick notation are used from the beginning. The methods differ in nuance: Colourstrings and With Music In Mind start with only one rhythmic value for a song: the quarter note, The Essential String Method offers all three values at the same time. The order differs slightly. Noteworthy is that in The Singing Instrumentalist, the second set of rhythms consists of quarter notes, eighth notes and dotted quarter notes in a 6/8-time signature. This is in line with their vision on the repertoire: they rather use songs from the own language and culture, which includes a lot of compound metre, fitting well with the age and preferences of the children, than use 2/4-Kodály-songs with a text paraphrase to be able to sing them. This is an understandable choice from the perspective of adapting the Kodály-method to the student. But from cellistic-developmental point of view, this is not the easiest way to start: the pupil has to face difficult bow divisions, and difficult string-crossings already in the second song of the book. All methods provide in plenty of rhythmical practice; next to relative solmisation this seems to be the second place in the spotlight. In The Essential String Method, the rhythmic exercises are divers and give opportunity to assimilate newly learned rhythms in creative assignments. In With Music In Mind and My Solfa Recorder Book, rhythm assignments are worked out, but give a kind of 'scholastic feel'. Especially in the latter, the ‘work’ on rhythm is quite predictable (“clap and sing the rhythm names”).

Coming to metre, The Singing Instrumentalist uses 2/4, 6/8, 3/4 and 4/4. Colourstrings starts with 2/4, 3/4 and 4/4, but on a very unconscious level, without time signatures or bar lines, only by a hardly visible grouping of the notes. In Book B there is a great metric variety, from adding triola’s in 2/4 to alternating time signatures with 5/8 or 7/8. In The Essential String Method there is, besides 2/4, 3/4 and 4/4, one 6/8-song in book 1, but that song is only read on solmisation and text by the pupil, the rhythm is not cognitively learned. To play this song, it is again challenging for the bow technique.

My Solfa Recorder Book is the only book proposing a different body action for the feel of the 3/4, but has otherwise the standard metres: 2/4, 4/4 and 3/4. The author of With Music In Mind takes this a little further by adding 3/8 and 6/8, choosing to include 3/8 towards 6/8 with the same motivation as appeared in The Singing Instrumentalist: to adapt to the rhythmic features of the British culture.  

Beat and rhythm return a lot in the polyphonic exercises, throughout all the methods. Part-clapping, canon-clapping, and, for instance, the ‘tap-and say’, and the ‘count and play’ exercises in The Essential String Method. These assignments are most of the time separate exercises, little studies, on a rhythm, or with the purpose to practice polyphony itself. Ostinato’s are used, rhythmical as well as ostinatos in the form of a melodic motive. Canons and two-part songs are sung and played. Not in all the methods this happens in very systematically. In Colourstrings Book A, The Singing Instrumentalist and My Solfa Recorder Book it appears irregularly, if at all. With Music In Mind on the contrary is working quite structured with polyphony, it comes back in each chapter. This is may be logical in the light of the instruments nature.

In my view, the chances to explore polyphony instrumentally, are in the group lesson. I observed only very elementary group lessons in Colourstrings, and I could not trace a body of polyphonic repertoire, or a natural attitude to work with this matter. Maybe I have not seen any representative groups yet. In the method books, the topic of polyphony is contained in exercises, and it is experienced in the duets and canons.

The same I can conclude for harmonic work: harmony is experienced in the two-part singing and playing. The Singing Instrumentalist could position itself for an original approach in harmony, because in this method book, harmony is the first thing the cellist is going to play. I agree that for a cellist, (and the pianist in particular, but in fact to all instruments), harmony should play an important role from the beginning. What is the motivation of The Singing Instrumentalist to choose this route? One of their objectives mentioned in the introduction is to give the pupil a complete musical experience from the beginning. Playing the harmony (like a simple bass-line) provides this experience. From a developmental point of view, the rhythmic variety and melody of songs will probably be missed by the pupil. The teacher must carefully watch out for the pupil who is just counting out ‘so’ without making the connection to the melody. In the third section of the same method there are assignments to compose second voices: these are possible application assignments of the harmonies experienced before. In the first volumes of Colourstrings and The Essential String Method, harmony just ‘happens’. The pupils are playing two-part songs or canons, or use melodic ostinatos. In Colourstrings Book B there are very few separate “harmony exercises”, but from the book the exercises just look like intonation exercises, and unfortunately, the teachers I observed did not work with these exercises. To further awareness of tonality, triads are given. In My Solfa Recorder Book there is hardly any harmony to be found: the songs are mostly without accompaniment, there are no part-songs and only very few canons. Even in With Music In Mind, I find few explicit harmony tasks. Although there are some accompaniments with chords, I would say it could be a very accessible way to add a bourdon, or a bass-pattern to a song. There is far more work on other polyphonic skills, rhythmical part work for example. In this method, there are only a few canons, some two-part songs and a sporadic question- and answer assignment. The Kodály-way to music seems to be thus linked to a cappella singing here, and in more of the methods, that there is no significant pathway for the development of polyphony and harmony.

The Singing Instrumentalist provides, to a certain extent, a fresh view on polyphony and harmony, by suggesting their tunes to be played in a bi-tonal setting, in canon (where you can question the suitability), or in two tempi at the same time. This is certainly providing in modern sounds, but for the pupil it might be difficult to get used to.

Also the elements of phrasing and form are mostly addressed unconsciously, for example by playing given duets with a responsorial structure. We can see this in the Colourstrings Book A, and in With Music In Mind. The only method to explore this more freely is The Essential String Method. In the reoccurring melodic ‘musical questions and answers’ there is the chance for the pupil to find the functions of harmony (although not by playing chords).

Harmony, phrasing and/or form are connected together and are probably difficult to teach in beginner's instrumental lessons. The formation of group lessons, including singing games and dances, listening activities, and ensemble playing, would be a solution to the problem that those areas are not really covered by the method books.

The enhancing of musical literacy in a responsible way is an issue dear to the heart of all the authors of the methods. This is reflected in their careful choice and sequencing of the musical elements, in terms of solmisation and rhythm. In the Colourstrings musicianship classes there is a strong focus on reading and writing, and I recognised a strong influence by the classical Kodály-methodology, close to the one I saw in the lessons in Hungary. In the instrumental section, the whole colour system in Colourstrings was even created as a first step to be able to read with young children. Musical writing is less present in the Colourstrings method books. Only Book A asks the pupil to write himself, in Book B there are no writing assignments (although the index lists a sign for “write words or the missing section/rhythm”). In The Essential String Method, the way to literacy is very step by step, as well as in The Singing Instrumentalist, starting with stick notation and reduced staves. These method books provide regular writing exercises, containing ‘dictations’, and compositions. The Essential String Method chooses to use two different tracks at the same time: pupils are already playing from full-size staves, but the preparation happens on the literacy-track, as does the presentation of the elements. In my view, this seems a practical compromise.

With Music In Mind and My Solfa Recorder Book start reading from stick notation, and transfer then to the full-size stave. Both books contain writing exercises. Overall, the relative reading is guaranteed by the use of staves without a clef, or with do- or la-clef. My Solfa Recorder Book is linking the solmisation names so strict to the recorder holes, that this might cause problems for the pupil on a later stage. The handsigns are used in all methods, but, as I mentioned before, I did not see them in use as an extra means of notation, or applied in the observed lessons. Children were not singing, or playing from handsigns.

Principles

In all methods, I recognise the principles of experienced-based teaching and active music-making. Above all, the children sing and play, and derive their learning from these active experiences. Because a method book is ‘just a book’, we have to read them with some goodwill in this respect. Sometimes this pedagogical vision is not so obvious from the text alone, but after analysing the content, reading background-information, observing lessons and experimenting, I have to conclude that all these methods have at least this intention.

The same can be said about the ‘from sound-to-symbol'-approach: all methods endeavour to act on this vision.

The sequencing of the repertoire, and thus of the musical content, is a very important element of the Kodály-approach. In the responsible choice of repertoire hides, so to speak, the PPP-principle.

The songs lead to more complex melodic and rhythmical patterns very gradually, presenting musical elements on the way, and at the same time providing ample opportunity for practice.

In this context, it is particularly interesting that the authors have to involve the instrument. The characteristics of the particular instrument cannot be ignored, and ideally, the instrumental line should merge with the general methodology. It is very interesting to see how the different methods take a stand in this. I only dare to speak about the cello methods discussed in this paper, because I am a cellist myself. In this, the Colourstrings method is particularly radical: the choice to start the left hand from natural harmonics, being able to play so-mi; la-so-mi; so-mi-do; up to the pentatonic scales, is not preceded in this fundamental way. For the initial, Hungarian, repertoire of Colourstrings, this tone set happened to be perfect, and so in the choice of repertoire, the method could stay close to Kodály-principles. From a technical point of view, the playing of the harmonics was beneficial for posture setup, and prepared the later technique of shifting. I feel a little uncomfortable with this very consistent approach, concerning the struggling of the pupils I observed, working through the 'muddy' sounds of the songs in another challenging transposition.

The Essential String Method and The Singing Instrumentalist both use a different kind of repertoire, more adapted to the world of British children. The Essential String Method sequences the musicianship elements in a Kodály way, including the PPP-principle, but chooses to add another line for the cello. Where possible, the lines overlap. In cello methodology, the method does not come up with surprises, and follows the generally prevailing views, as do the more traditional methods.

The Singing Instrumentalist leaves a lot of the cellistic work to the teacher, and as a source on its own, I would probably not consider it a method. But also in the musicianship line some big steps are made. I could recognize the PPP-principle in the building towards staff-notation, and the assimilating work on rhythm. But as well as in the instrumental work, the choices in repertoire undermine this from time to time. This method seems less concerned with the thoroughness which is associated with the Kodály-method, and which is inherent in instrumental education. This can be seen in line with the 'DaCapo philosophy', where exploration and creativity are important pillars.