A. Note values
The table below shows how often the mentioned note values appear. This applies only to note values within the ornament; the final note is not included, as it will be addressed in a later section.
Some quick observations are:
- It is very clear that the fusa and semifusa are the most standard note values that appear in these ornaments. The semiminima comes in second, and the use of the minima and subsemifusa is much less frequent. The use of the semibrevis is extremely rare.
- Very few ornaments were found where only one note value appears. It is almost always a combination of at least two, but often at least three.
For centuries, the brevis and the longa were the most common note values used in musical notation.1 For reference, the length of one brevis can be compared to that of two whole notes in our modern notation system. A longa is twice the length of a brevis, meaning it is equivalent to four whole notes in modern notation.
Generally speaking, over time, as people began writing more complex rhythms, smaller note values gradually became more common.1 Along with this trend, either owing to or resulting in a gradual slowing of tempo, the tactus (a concept including the modern idea of a beat) was placed on the semiminima by the end of the 16th century.2 Meanwhile, black notation and smaller note values, such as the fusa and semifusa, became increasingly common throughout the 16th century.
In Bovicelli's use of note values, we can clearly see that he is a late 16th-century composer, making use of (very) small note values. The fusa and semifusa are the most commonly used note values, and therefore, we can relate his usage of note values to the broader historical development—placing him closer to the transition towards our modern notation system. We see exactly the same approach to note values in Bassano's work.
Interestingly, it's hard to find more information about the smallest note value, the subsemifusa. Often sources do not mention any note value smaller then semifusa. This is related to the fact that this note value, despite earlier appearances in works such as Ganassi's Fontegara (1535), only truly became popular after Dalla Casa used it in his treatise Il vero modo di diminuir (1584).3 It was only after that time that the subsemifusa became popular and started to play an important role in instrumental development around 1600.
B. Range
Below, you can find an overview of all the ranges of the analyzed ornaments. If we look at the different ranges themselves, we can draw a few easy conclusions.
The range varies from very small to very large. The smallest interval of range is a second, and the largest is an octave plus a fifth. Most common ranges go from a fourth to an octave. The least common ranges are the smallest (the second) and the largest (the octave plus a fifth). Any range larger than an octave is very rare.
When looking at the ornaments and their corresponding range, it appears that Bovicelli structures his ornamentations around the G (hypo)dorian mode.
A 'normal' dorian mode covers the range of an octave, starting from D, which serves as the finalis (or, in modern terms, the tonic).4 The range of a hypodorian mode, however, differs as it extends to lower notes. In the hypodorian mode, the scale spans from the A below D—while D remains the finalis—up to an octave above the A. This range though, can be extended down do a G and up to a B-flat.5
If we transpose this hypodorian mode a fourth up to G, in which it seems that most of Bovicelli's ornaments are written, we arrive at the following range of an octave and a third:
I can further explain this range by looking at the hexachords, a musical scale from the Renaissance, consisting of 6 notes. In this case, as seen in the figure above, Bovicelli uses the hexachordum naturale combined with the hexachordum molle. This combination results in a range of an octave plus a third and can be considered (together with the range of an octave plus a fourth) as a standard range for vocal Renaissance music.6 This is because it was common practice to combine two hexachords per voice, with an additional fa super la on top (the fa above the la—in this case, E-flat).
Bovicelli strictly remaines within this range in the broad majority of cases. In all ornaments of the first 13 intervals/figures (as shown in Table No. 1), he deviates from this range only three times, descending below C to B-flat. This can be explained: each instance involves a movement from the high B-flat to the lower one, either through an octave leap or a passing figure.
In ornaments of intervals/figures number 14 and 15, as shown in Table No. 1, the range expands. All the large intervals that occur (octave plus fourth, and octave plus fifth) appear in this part of the chapter. These are cadential figures, where at the end of each example, he elaborates and demonstrates ways in which the standard range of G hypodorian can be extended.
It is interesting to note that Bovicelli follows the standard range of the mode, but in the last two examples, he expands to a wider range. In my opinion, this arose because Bovicelli wanted to provide an all-round palette of examples as possible, logically concluding with the most adventurous ones at the end. And who knows, maybe a bit of self-display played a role—he might have wanted to demonstrate all his abilities.
The way he approaches these examples hints slightly at the Baroque period, which was beginning around that time, where thinking in terms of a key, rather than a specific mode with its corresponding standard range, started to take shape.
Bassano does the same and even exceeds an octave and a third in 10% of the cases. This means it is even more common for Bassano to have a wider range. It is clear that Bassano was exploring possibilities beyond the standard range as well. A factor that may have played a role in Bassano's case is that he was originally an instrumentalist. An instrumentalist encounters little to no technical difficulties when extending the range of an octave and a third. For a singer, however, the larger the range, the more challenging it becomes.
It is clear that the third is the most common. The fourth and fifth occur sometimes, the octave rarely, and the sixth very rarely. It is notable that the seventh never appears.
Another conclusion that can be drawn is: the longer the ornament, the more intervals can be found. If an ornament lacks an interval, it is almost always very short.
In interpreting this information, I will refer to a set of ten rules for making diminutions, given by Aurelio Virgiliano in his treatise Il Dolcimelo (c. 1600), as translated by Oliver Webber.7 The first rule he presents is: "Diminutions must run by step as far as possible".
If we analyze the average use of intervals, it concludes to 1.5 intervals per ornament—or rather, since a half interval does not exist, an average of 3 intervals per two ornaments. Considering that most ornaments are highly elaborate, I am impressed by how consistently Bovicelli follows Virgiliano’s first rule. In contrast, Bassano has a higher average of 2.5 intervals per ornament (an average of 5 intervals per two ornaments). This is not a surpise: vocal diminutions generally follow a more consistent stepwise motion than instrumental ones.8 So, this difference can be directly attributed to the fact that Bovicelli was a singer and Bassano an instrumentalist: leaps are more challenging to sing than stepwise motion, whereas for instrumentalists, this distinction matters far less.
The third of Virgiliano’s ten rules states: "Those diminutions which leap must all be good".7 By 'good,' he means consonant rather than dissonant.
Bovicelli provides a perfect example of this principle: he exclusively uses consonant intervals and avoids dissonant ones without exception. Different from Bovicelli we find a seventh in Bassano's work—an exception that suggests he was slightly less strict than Bovicelli. Again, I believe this relates to the differences between singers and instrumentalists: singing a seventh is extremely difficult, whereas playing one is quite manageable.
Virgiliano’s seventh rule states: "When leaping an octave, it should be done upwards, not downwards, so as not to cross with the other voices".7 However, this rule does not appear to be strictly followed, as I find just as many downward octave leaps as upward ones. The same applies to Bassano. This raises an interesting question: is avoiding downward octave leaps a distinctive characteristic of Virgiliano's own style?
D. Melodic sequence
In this research, a melodic sequence is defined as a motif of four notes or more, that repeats immediately after its first occurrence and repeats one or more times. In total, a melodic sequence was found 31 times among all 376 ornaments, making it a rare occurrence. Of the ones I found, several characteristics can be identified:
- Length of the motif: Most motifs consist of four or five notes, with two extending to six notes and one extending to seven notes.
- Number of repetitions: In most cases (25 times), the motif is repeated once, while two repetitions are rare (4 times), and exceptions include one sequence with 5 repetitions and another with 6.
- Interval of the repetition: These motifs are most commonly repeated at the interval of a third, sometimes at a second or fourth, with a fifth being extremely rare; repetitions can occur both ascending and descending, and in some cases, on the same starting pitch.
- Rhytmic sequence: In most cases, the sequense is not only melodic but also rhytmic, which means, a repetition of a rhytmic pattern.
There is a standard melodic/rhythmic sequence that Bovicelli uses: the so-called accento.8 In this pattern, a stepwise descending line is ornamented by first leaping up a third before returning to the next note in line. Bovicelli’s use of this accento is a highly elaborate variation, as the main notes are further embellished with passing notes leading into them.
According to Bovicelli’s own description, stepwise descending semiminima's should maintain a consistent rhythm, as there is no time to alter it. In contrast, stepwise descending minima's should vary in rhythm to create diversity.8 You can see this in the figure above. In this analysis, I have only found stepwise descending semiminima's, i.e., maintaining a consistent rhythm.
The dissonance that occurs on the strong beat in the middle of the ornamented note (as noted with a ^ in the example) is characteristic of a slightly later 16th-century ornamentation style.8 Whereas diminutions were meant to add lightness and fluidity, a certain 'carelessness', these accenti suddenly introduced drama and emotion. This is particularly interesting, as it already hints at the direction ornamentation would take in the Baroque period, where evoking drama and emotion played a crucial role.
Interestingly, despite its supposed commonality of this accento, I have only found it five times among the 376 analyzed ornaments. I suspect Bovicelli uses this specific ornament more frequently when creating diminutions for the top line of a particular piece, as he demonstrates later in his treatise.
In Bassano's examples, we find no ornament similar to Bovicelli's elaborate accento. Moreover, melodic sequences are even rarer in Bassano's work, with only seven (out of 266) instances identified. Whereas Bovicelli often uses sequences to fill in stepwise ascending or descending lines (sometimes with thirds in between), this is not the case for Bassano. Instead, when a melodic sequence does appear, it is often a repetition on the same pitch, often without any overlap between melodic and rhythmic sequences—a striking difference between the two composers.
Another important characteristic of the late 16th-century Italian diminution practice and also of Bovicelli, is the use of raddoppiate.8 This technique involves the repetition of a motif but in double speed, creating sudden outbursts of passages with smaller note values. See the image on the right, which shows an example from Bovicelli’s ornamentations for Io Son Ferito, a madrigal by Palestrina.
Due to these sudden outbursts, the melody gains a distinctive character with an irregular pattern, somewhat contrary to the general late 16th-century style, as it disrupts the smooth and easy-going melodic flow typically associated with the more classical diminutions.8
It is particularly interesting that this feature does not appear at all in the ornaments I have analyzed in this research, even though, according to Dickey (2007), it is considered a defining characteristic of Bovicelli’s style. I don't have a clear explanation for why he did not include this in the ornaments in Chapter 3 of his Regole. However, one possible explanation could be that he wrote his book in chronological order, and this is a characteristic that he perhaps only started applying later (in Chapter 4).
No examples of raddoppiate have been found in Bassano's ornaments either. This is less striking, as Bassano's ornamentations fall under the more classical form of creating diminutions, where such disruptions of a smooth line does not belong.8
E. Rhythm and rhythmic Sequence
I will first focus on the (irregular) rhythms found, and rhythmic sequences will be addressed afterwards.
The only irregular rhythm found consists of dotted notes—no triplets or similar rhythmic figures are identified. These dotted notes are very common for Bovicelli: on average, there are 2 dotted rhythms found per single ornament. Given the fact that many ornaments are very short, the occurrence is highly significant.
Below is a chart detailing the occurrence of different note values for the dotted notes:
As we have just discussed, Bovicelli appears to be ahead of his time, hinting at the Baroque period through his use of accenti. The use of dotted rhythms aligns perfectly with this same mindset. Whereas passaggi in late Renaissance thought were meant to be light and fluid, the frequent use of dotted notes contradicted this idea. Instead, it made melodic lines less smooth and more distinctive.8
Bovicelli’s distinctive style, characterized by the frequent use of dotted notes8, is evident in the contrast between him and Bassano. Remarkably, Bassano's 266 ornaments contain a total of only 24 dotted notes, whereas Bovicelli's 376 ornaments feature as many as 787 dotted notes.
By repeating these dotted notes in immediate succession, a rhythmic sequence is created. In the vast majority of rhythmic sequences I have found—specifically, in 89 out of the 111 identified cases—this is the pattern. Other instances include repetitions of [fusa + two semifusa], which, in my view, share the same non-fluent character as the sequence of a dotted rhythm. Additional rhythmic sequences overlap with melodic sequences and often fall into the category of the accento described above.
Most of the time, a pattern is repeated once, but it is often repeated multiple times as well, with one example reaching up to eight repetitions.
No rhythmic sequences have been found in Bassano’s work. This is a striking difference between the two composers, but one that can be explained: Bassano adhered more to the older tradition in making diminutions of smooth, flowing lines, whereas Bovicelli’s style already leaned more towards the Baroque period of emotion and expression.
These figures, primarily the trill and the trill with a turn—referred to as groppo in cadential figures—are common and standard in late 16th-century diminution practice.9 In using these figures, Bovicelli remains faithful to the style of his time.
Something else stands out. In the late 16th century, the tremolo (the rapid repetition of the same pitch) was a standard ornament as well, typically used by singers and often imitated by instrumentalists.8 Bovicelli does discuss this ornament in the first chapter of his Regole, but he provides an extremely confusing description of its definition and application.10 Moreover, he never notates this ornament, whereas other composers of his time, such as Rognoni (1620), did notate it.8 It is therefore clear that it must be applied, but how and where exactly is uncertain, especially since he never notates this ornament.
Important to note: in this study, I use the word tremolo to refer to the rapid repetition of the same pitch. I do not refer to any sort of trill, i.e., involving two different pitches. I clarify, because sources use the term trillo and tremolo in various ways.
An extension of the standard trill with a turn, namely by playing an extra trill a second higher before (see the figure on the right), occurred twice. Both instances were used as cadential figures. It seems that Bovicelli presents it as an option, but it cannot be considered a standard figure. In contrast, in Bassano's work, this particular figure is used very frquent. In fact, he uses this as the only standard way to close a cadential figure, with no exception. A big difference between them.
G. Musica ficta
According to the three rules I described in the previous chapter, I analyze the places where, in my opinion, an unwritten accidental should be added.
According to Bent (2001), three common rules of ficta are:
- Leading notes should be raised by adding a sharp.
- A note above the la of a hexachord always has te function of a fa and should therefore be a half tone step. This is called the fa super la.
- Dissonant intervals (such as tritones) should be avoided and altered.
There are three cases where rule number 1 should be applied. In all instances, it concerns a cadential figure with a trill, in which the leading tone (F) must be raised with a sharp to resolve to G.
An interesting example of musica ficta can be seen on the right. Bovicelli adds a sharp, which creates a problem. The issue is related to rule number 2: this high E is what we call a fa super la. This should always be a half-step interval, meaning that it should be an E-flat. However, notating an E-flat would lead to another problem, namely the dissonant interval between the E-flat and the A that comes after. In other words, Bovicelli sacrifices rule 2 in order to follow rule 3.
Furthermore, there are quite a few different kinds of examples that are, to say the least, remarkable. The question repeatedly arises: is this a notational error, or is it related to the application of musica ficta?
One of them is interesting to discuss briefly. See the example below. Bovicelli places a B-flat and a B-natural in quick succession. The question arises: should both notes perhaps be B-natural? Donington (1977) describes that some accidentals can also be applied retrospectively. Since these two notes are played in very close succession, this principle applies here as well.
All other errors in the application of sharps and flats fall under the category of 'notation errors'. This will be further discussed in the final section of this chapter.
In Bassano’s work, several instances have been found where an accidental could be added. This aligns with Bovicelli’s approach: in the works of both composers, a thorough understanding of whether or not to apply musica ficta was essential, making it a relevant topic. The fact that they notated accidentals does not mean they can be entirely relied upon.
H. Retention of original notes
In the majority of cases (70%), the pitch of notes that align with the original figure remains the same. In cases that the note is different, the difference ranges from a second to a fifth, either above or below the original note. A difference of a sixth and an octave also occur, but only above the original pitch, never below.
In all cases, the original note is never ignored; rather, these intervals are often used to lead back to the original note later in the beat, either through leaps or passing notes.
A characteristic example of Bovicelli's style is his use of the accento. This was already partially explained in section D: Melodic Sequence, but that discussion focused only on the ornamentation of a descending line. Accenti can also be added to an ascending line or any other note. The length of the accento is taken from the main note, causing it to fall on the beat.8 Bovicelli’s music is filled with this form of accento, particularly in the first and final notes of an ornament. Below are two examples.
The first example is an accento that begins a third below the main note and resolves into it with a simple dotted upward figure. This occurs in various contexts: somewhere within the figure, as an ornament of the final note, or as an ornament of the starting note. Interestingly, the latter was the most common, with this accento being used as an ornament for the starting note 26 times.
A second example of an accento in an upward motion that starts with a second lower, also on the strong beat, resolving into the main note. This particular example is used exclusively for ending notes. In the middle of an ornament, this lower second occasionally appears on the strong beat, but it is rare. It is never used for starting notes.
Because these accenti fall on the strong beat, they create dissonance and are often described as 'lazy', or even as 'neglect'.8 In this way, Bovicelli demonstrates another method of adding drama and emotion to his music, introducing an extra layer that hints at the expressivity of music and ornaments of the Baroque period.
Another noticeable recurring ornament is the division of a final note. This note begins at the correct pitch and timing, then briefly moves away before returning to the main note again. I have only found this in final notes, 18 times in total. I would not describe it as an accento since the correct pitch is heard on the strong beat. However, because the final resolution is delayed, it evokes the same sense of 'laziness' as the previously mentioned accento.
All of these findings are in contrast with, firstly, Virigiliano's fourth rule, which states: "The main note should always be played at the beginning, middle and end of the bar. And should it not be convenient to do so in the middle of the bar, one must at least play a nearby note which is consonant, never dissonant; excepting the fourth above".7
In principle, we do see this reflected in Bovicelli’s ornaments, as he largely follows this approach. However, he frequently deviates from it: starting and ending notes are often different. Additionally, when the original note is not played in the middle of the ornament, it is usually replaced by a consonant interval. Yet, this is not always the case—intervals of a second, which are dissonant, also occur and are not uncommon.
In the retention of original pitches, there is certainly a difference between Bovicelli and Bassano.
First of all, in Bassano's ornaments, the final notes always keep their original pitch and length, without exception. This is already a distinction: in Bovicelli's ornaments, the pitch and length of final notes sometimes varies. Additionally, Bassano's ornaments always start on the original pitch, whereas this is not always the case with Bovicelli.
During longer ornaments, Bassano generally keeps the original pitches. This does align with Bovicelli's approach. However, the difference lies in the moments where the pitches change: in Bassano’s case, these are always consonant intervals (mainly octaves), whereas in Bovicelli’s case, dissonant seconds are not seldom.
Notational errors happen often in Bovicelli’s work—I have identified 22 mistakes. Not only do misplaced sharps or flats occur, but incorrect note values are even more frequent. These errors can take various forms: a fusa that should be a semifusa, a missing dot, a final note that should be shorter or longer, or 'white' notes that should be 'black' and vice versa. Some of them may be printing mistakes.
The most notable error is a mistake in one of the 'original' passages, as shown in Table No. 1: the final note should be a D, not an F! This becomes evident when analyzing all the ornamentations he creates based on this figure, as they all conclude on a D.
I have found no reason why so many errors appear in Bovicelli's work, not only in this chapter but throughout the entire book. My assumption is that it is a combination of printing mistakes and inattentiveness on his or the publisher’s part. Who knows—perhaps Bovicelli was an exceptionally talented, yet, a somewhat head-in-the-clouds musician?