Case Study II:
Now we turn to Gaetano Francone, who was a leading figure in the Neapolitan musical world, as we discovered in Part Two.
Francone's “passagagli” provide a fruitful example of how the Neapolitan conservatories were creating the next generation of craftsmen in the field of improvisation — musicians who were able to stun audiences with their extemporaneous performances.
In these examples, we see a recurring ostinato bass pattern, a defining characteristic of the passacaglio — a dance that was widely popular in the streets of Italy. Etymologically, the term passacaglio (or "passagaglio") derives from the Spanish pasar ("to pass") and calle ("street"), reflecting its origins as a street performance tradition.1 Francone beautifully ornaments this foundational structure with passing notes and melismatic partite (variations).
One can imagine a teacher guiding a student by first having them read the parte diminuita (written-out variations) and then, on the following day, encouraging them to create new possibilities while respecting the tonal framework of the ostinato bass. Ultimately, Francone’s Passacagli reveal the customary dynamic between Maestro and Allievo (teacher and student) — a relationship built on suggestion and response, where creativity is nurtured through structured improvisation.
For me, this written example of improvisation is revelatory. It presents an opportunity to learn a craft that was essential to the virtuosity of the time. The ability to invent variations over a simple bass line naturally leads to compositional creativity, which, in turn, has become a daily source of inspiration in my own practice.
Case Study III:
The final part of the Montecassino manuscript serves as a striking example of how pedagogical principles were applied in practice. Identified on the first page as the work of "Sig.r Rocco Greco," this set of eleven liturgical compositions represents one of the earliest documented instances of the cello being employed as a continuo instrument in a liturgical setting — an indication that this practice was likely prevalent in Naples. Greco includes textual incipits at the beginning of each piece, thus revealing that these compositions are adaptations of eleven preexisting antiphons.
Each antiphon is structured into two to four sections, alternating between duple and triple meter, except for “Veni electa mea,” which is through-composed in triple meter, and “Sacerdos Dei,” which consists of five sections. The source material for these settings appears to be Antifone per diverse festività di tutto l’anno by Bonifacio Graziani (1604–1664), a widely circulated collection published posthumously in 1666. Greco closely follows the sequence of Graziani’s eight two-voice antiphons, adding two antiphons for three voices (“Fidelis servus” and “Veni electa mea”) and one for four voices (“Domus mea”) from the same collection. However, the similarities extend beyond mere sequence: with one exception, Greco’s bass line mirrors Graziani’s organ part verbatim.2 He follows the structure of the original pieces so meticulously that the sectional divisions and metrical shifts in his compositions align exactly with those in Graziani’s. While the “second viola” provides a sustained bass line derived from the antiphons, the first viola embellishes it with idiomatic techniques such as arpeggios, string crossings, and scales.
Rather than employing a purely chordal accompaniment, Rocco Greco adopts a contrapuntal technique that prioritizes melodic ornamentation and idiomatic diminutions of the bass line. This suggests that continuo realization on string instruments was conceived in a linear manner, relying on the memorization of improvisatory patterns that blended performance, extemporization, and composition—a methodology closely resembling that of organists performing alternatim versets.
Greco’s compositions thus function as antiphon substitutes, or more specifically, overlays, intended for use in the Office of Vespers. They would have been performed while the priest intoned the full text of the antiphon, aligning with a widespread 17th-century Italian practice of inserting vocal or instrumental pieces before or after psalms during Vespers services. This practice was reinforced by the Caeremoniale Episcoporum, issued by Pope Clement VIII in 1600, which advised organists to play between the Vespers psalms while the complete antiphon text was intoned.3 Consequently, collections of antiphons were published to accommodate this practice, fostering the development of improvisation and elaboration, primarily on the organ, over the prescribed liturgical melodies.
Greco’s collection offers insight into a performance tradition in which cellists either substituted for the organist in continuo realization or collaborated with them in elaborating on the antiphon bass. Since these antiphons were widely known, they may have also served as instructional material in Neapolitan conservatories, providing a framework for teaching improvisation. By compiling a repertoire of melodic and bass patterns, the Montecassino manuscript suggests an underlying pedagogical method aimed at refining musicians' skills in spontaneous contrapuntal improvisation.
Case Study IV:
Francesco Paolo Supriani (1678 - 1753) was a distinguished Italian cellist and composer affiliated with the Neapolitan school. He was born in Conversano, Italy, on July 11, 1678, and began his musical training in his hometown before relocating to Naples. In 1707, he married the singer Margherita Mencherelli. The following year, Supriani was appointed as the principal cellist of the Real Capilla de Barcelona, a role established by violinist Giuseppe Porsile for Archduke Charles of Austria. This position marked him as the first musician in Spain to be formally recognized as a cellist. After two years in Barcelona, he returned to Naples in 1710, joining the Real Cappella, where he remained active until 1730. During this time, he worked alongside renowned composers, including kapellmeister Alessandro Scarlatti. Following his retirement from the royal court in 1730, Supriani continued to perform occasionally while receiving a pension. He passed away in Naples on August 28, 1753.4
Examples like these are not isolated, fortunately. Supriani, too, left us with fruitful examples of elaborations on a simple melody. A palazzo is constructed over the foundation of the bass: the melody appears, as does the middle line of the toccate, flourishing with great possibilities. As we can notice, these “fioriture” are not simply ornamentations or diminutions of the melody, but rather contrapuntal extensions that give the player a chance to include additional chords.
