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The other state, in contrast to mind-wandering, is the one generally desired among musicians during practice: mindfulness. According to Kabat-Zinn (2004), mindfulness is “paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally." Other authors, such as Brown (2020), state that “mindfulness refers to an enhanced attention to and awareness of current experience or present reality.” Similarly, Marlatt & Kristeller (1999) define mindfulness as “bringing one’s complete attention to the present experience on a moment-to-moment basis.” Another interesting definition that should be taken into account could be deduced from Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), a widely used self-report measure of mindfulness, which include five facets (Goldberg et al., 2016). These facets can also be considered essential components of mindfulness:
1) Observing
2) Describing
3) Acting with Awareness
4) Nonjudging
5) Nonreacting
Having provided the definitions of mind-wandering and mindfulness, the aforementioned phenomena should be discussed in relation to music and meditation. In the study conducted by Czajkowski et al. (2022) it was noticed that after eight weeks of mindfulness courses, students found it easier to stay focused at their instrumental lessons as well as practice more efficiently during their private practice sessions. Participants reported faster learning, increased productivity during private practice sessions, being able to practice mindfully for a longer time as well as a reduction in procrastination. Similarly, in another study by Czajkowski & Greasley (2015), it was found that after regular Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) courses, singers were more focused at their singing lessons and their productivity increased. Improvement was not only reported by the participants themselves, but also noticed by their teachers, who were also investigated and, in the majority of cases, noticed their students’ improvement. Many participants reported feeling more present during their daily practice, with increased productivity leading to longer practice sessions.
Similar conclusions were reached by Sánchez (2023), who investigated both mind-wandering and mindfulness separately. The study found that simple tasks led to more mind-wandering, while newer, more complex tasks resulted in less rumination and mind-wandering. Even though the results of the mentioned study in regard to the connection between meditation and mind wandering were inconclusive, it was measured via FFMQ and Mindfulness for Musicians (MfM) questionnaire that participants have become more mindful, which, as participants themselves stated, helped them to become more focused during their practice.
A study by Brown (2020) with three participants also found that meditation helped enhance focus. All three participants reflected that meditation helped them increase their ability to resist the distractions and come back to focus more easily once they got distracted. They also have noticed that the focus used in their practice sessions was not the “exhaustive type of focus” thus enabling them to practice efficiently for longer amounts of time. Interestingly, in the same study the participants noticed that their self-perception also affected their practicing quality. For example, as one of the participants stated, “it [self–judgement] just redirects my energy to practice into energy to critique, which isn’t helpful”. When participants’ ability not to judge and react improved, their practicing sessions also became more efficient, not only because they focused their energy on practicing itself, but also because there was a smaller possibility that they would rage quit a practicing session or mindlessly repeat exercises or passages simply to say they had practiced.
Negative Self-Perception
Negative self-perception can become a major issue in a musician's daily life. It can both intensify MPA and impede one's ability to practice efficiently and with focus. It can also strain professional interpersonal relationships. For example, in a study conducted by Czajkowski et al. (2022), it was found that musicians' self-perception often depends heavily on their teacher's approval. Some participants in the study reported that, after eight weeks of mindfulness courses, they were able to handle criticism from their teacher better. Taking into account that in study by Atlas et al. (2004) it was found that musicians who were more affected by their teacher’s criticism showed less improvement and weaker communication skills, one can draw a conclusion that mindfulness improved both the progress and the relationships with the teacher. Furthermore, participants of the same study noted that being able to not judge themselves harshly after unsuccessful practice resulted in increased productivity as well as prolonged practice times. It was also found that after eight-week mindfulness course some of the participants felt more confident about their own abilities, which led them to be less anxious about voicing their musical opinions and thus enriched both their solo and ensemble practice.
In the study conducted by Smith (2018), some of the participants stated that meditation inspired them to be more acceptant toward themselves in the way that rather than criticizing themselves for not being able to play something, they just learned to accept the place they are in right now and work from there. Additionally, it was stated that being able to accept negative thoughts and feelings helped the participants to cope with them better.
Furthermore, in the study conducted by Brown (2020), similar results were achieved. By learning not to dwell on past mistakes, participants learned to accept the process of learning, not judge themselves for mistakes, and remind themselves that they are still continuing to grow. As in Czajkowski et al.'s (2022) study, it was noticed that acceptance and meditation improved interpersonal relationships. However, in this case, the change manifested differently: one participant noted that by accepting the fact that they were “allowed” to make mistakes, they stopped shifting blame from themselves to others. The fact that after the meditation course they stopped generalizing single occurrences to a permanent quality (for example, making a mistake into being a terrible player), and started to counter the negative self-judgement with a bit more objective self evaluation (noticing that a note was out of tune, but also reminding themselves that all the other notes were in tune). The same study showed that acceptance can affect self-perception in other ways as well: many participants expressed that when they got frustrated, they wouldn’t finish the work and meet their expectations, which would lead to expressing negative judgement towards themselves and it was stated that meditation offering a way to be more acceptant helped them to deal with the aforementioned problem. Additionally, neutral self-assessment helped participants correct mistakes more effectively, thereby improving their practice sessions. Notably, increased self-acceptance also improved the practice sustainability of participants in the way that they were less likely to rage quit and more able to get back to focus after getting frustrated. After the meditation intervention and increased self-acceptance, participants also reported practicing bass in a more constructive and enjoyable way.
Summary
From the aforementioned information, it is evident that all three facets of musician’s life that have been investigated are interconnected. Difficulty in managing MPA will negatively impact MPQ, which in turn can increase one's anxiety. This heightened anxiety can lead to negative self-perception, which, by causing rumination and destructive thoughts, can negatively affect the quality of one’s daily practice. Reduced practice quality then further affects MPQ, both due to insufficient preparation and the likelihood of experiencing MPA from feeling underprepared. Additionally, an inability to focus during practice sessions can negatively impact one's self-perception.
Recognizing how interconnected these elements are, it is particularly useful that meditation has been shown to address each of these challenges. While meditation may not always reduce MPA directly, it has been proven to lessen MPA’s impact on MPQ. Furthermore, numerous studies indicate that meditation is an effective tool for reducing mind-wandering and increasing productivity during practice. Finally, some studies also suggest that meditation helps musicians manage negative self-judgment, thereby positively impacting self-perception.
"It is a state that has been associated with the activation of the default neural network and is characterized by the generation of self-centered thoughts. These thoughts would not be related to the present task or external sensory stimuli, but would only be part of the internal train of thought (Mason et al., 2007). Mind-wandering has been associated with perceptual decoupling (Levinson et al., 2012) or executive control failure (McVay & Kane, 2009) during tasks that rely on working memory."
Meditation and Music
Music Performance Anxiety (MPA)
Despite being present in everyday life, challenges such as lack of focus, music performance anxiety (MPA), and negative self-perception are even more prominent in a musician’s professional life. The importance of addressing these issues is emphasized by a variety of studies aimed at developing strategies to cope with the aforementioned problems. The most widely researched one is MPA. In Healthy Work written by Karasek & Theorell (1990), it is suggested that high-strain jobs are associated with an increased risk of heart attacks. Another study by Karasek & Theorell (1996) suggests that musicians' blood pressure while working was higher than that of waiters or air traffic controllers—both occupations known for their high-stress environments. While these potential physical detriments of high-stress environments are significant, the psychological effects must also be considered. When MPA affects one’s performance, there is a high chance that a person will fall into the loop of low self-efficacy, negative expectations, even higher anxiety, and rumination (Kenny et al., 2004). While there are a plethora of documented ways to deal with anxiety, such as general lifestyle changes (for example, avoiding certain foods, exercising more, engaging in hobbies, increased alcohol consumption, taking vitamins) or certain practices (using beta-blockers, psychotherapy) (Bartel & Thompson, 2021), meditation is the one that is relevant for this research.
Over the years, numerous studies have shown a connection between meditation and improved abilities to cope with MPA. For example, Lin et al. (2008) measured the effects of meditation on both participants’ MPA and Musical Performance Quality (MPQ) with a group of 19 students. The results of the study showed that practicing meditation slightly decreased MPA. It was found that usually the MPQ and MPA are negatively correlated. However, the meditation group experienced a positive correlation between MPA and MPQ. This suggests that even though meditation minimally decreases anxiety, it can mitigate the effect of MPA on MPQ, potentially even enhancing performance. Similar findings were reported by Farnsworth-Grodd (2012), whose study states that mindfulness practices reduce MPA, improve emotional regulation and thus have a positive impact on one‘s MPQ.
Some other studies did not quantitatively measure MPQ, relying instead on participants’ self-reports. Despite differences in research methods, these studies found similar results. Participants in Smith's study (2018) reported that meditation had a stress-relieving effect, and many noted that this practice not only helped them manage music-related stress but also improved their ability to cope with daily life stress.
Czajkowski et al. (2022) reached a similar conclusion to Lin et al. (2008): while participants’ responses regarding improvements in MPA levels varied, almost all reported that they either became less concerned with MPA’s effects or better at managing them. It was emphasised that being able to react in a more mindful manner helped participants to respond more effectively both to feelings of anxiety and unexpected situations. It also helped participants to refocus on playing, performing, and being in control. Among other benefits, the following ones were named: improved mental focus, physical awareness, increased musical creativity while performing and more positive feelings after the performance.
In a study by Shorey (2020), similar conclusions were drawn. This study measured meditation’s effectiveness both through participant self-reflection and cortisol levels. Although little difference in cortisol levels was observed between the experimental and control groups, participants reported that meditation helped them manage stage anxiety. This study adds further evidence that, while meditation may not directly lower MPA, it provides tools to minimize its adverse effects during performances.
Focus/Mind-Wandering
Building on the understanding of MPA, it is essential to explore the roles of focus and mind-wandering, as these cognitive processes significantly impact a musician's ability to practice efficiently and achieve optimal results. The importance of managing focus issues is even more relevant today, as the daily use of technology and digital media negatively affects attention spans and significantly heightens distractibility (Alaparrthi, 2024). Fortunately, various studies have focused on ways to improve attention control and reduce the negative effects of technology, which has become an integral part of daily life.
First of all, it is necessary to define both the state we want to achieve and the state we want to reduce. Lack of focus is often defined as mind-wandering. In order to understand this phenomenon more deeply, it could be useful to give it a more specific definition. Sánchez (2023) provides this definition:
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