This study has collated the known examples of double-reed activity in the period of study in the Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden in an attempt to craft a Dutch double-reed identity in a time of great organological developments. Beginning with the effects of French contact in 1677, the Republic began its shift towards not only French music, but to their instruments. The effect of Lully’s tragédies de musique on the Dutch musical landscape cannot be understated, forming the documentable beginnings of the French oboe in the Republic.
By evaluating the terminology used in the period, inconsistencies and contradictions within the pool of primary sources can be identified. Early on in the period of study (1685), the instrument-maker Richard Haka categorised the double-reed instruments he made into the categories of German and French. As the period of study concerns period of time in which French woodwinds were likely first introduced to the Republic, it is only natural that irregularities would arise, but such issues with interpreting sources makes it more complicated to discern appropriate the instrumentation for certain works of the period. The kleine schalmei suffers greatly from this issue, without any clear terminology of the period to define it, with today’s performers resorting to title page iconography as an excuse to use it for certain works. This study has posited an argument against this idea, providing observations of instrumental combinations which may suit the instrument as well as more typical shawms of the period.
The two principal terminology issues are the conflation of shawms with oboes and of shawms with chalumeaux. Although references to shawm-related words in fictional works decreases over time, the inclusion of them persists throughout the period of study. The use of oboe-related words is more ambiguous due to the fact that the French term, “hautbois”, can refer to several kinds of double-reed instruments, including shawms, oboes, and bassoons, making it a problematic exercise to determine which exact instruments are being referenced. This becomes clearer when sources refer to instruments as being French or German, or when imagery is used. Regardless of the ambiguous use of terminology, double-reed instruments can be found throughout the Republic in a variety of settings, with several works — both lost and surviving — prescribing double-reed instruments.
Despite the Republic’s courts of the period generally lacking in musical documentation — at least, in comparison to German-speaking regions and England — there were certainly double-reed instruments present in the courts of both The Hague and Leeuwarden. In The Hague, there was at least one instance of an oboe band being utilised for a court function, consisting of four oboes and two bassoons. After William III’s move to England, there is not much to say about musical activity in the court, aside from visits from prominent England-based double-reed players. Leeuwarden had three oboes and a bassoon since at least 1696, procured by Johannes Schenck. The court’s employment of composer and oboist Johann Christian Schickhardt led to Roger’s publication of several of his works for oboe, including a now-lost oboe method. Schickhardt’s relationship with Roger’s publishing house continued even after he left for Hamburg in 1711.
In the period of study, the two cities with relevant theatre troops were Amsterdam and The Hague. Very little original music survives from the Amsterdam Schouwburg, but the works of Lully were incredibly popular in both cities. As the Amsterdam Schouwburg’s payment records almost never included the instruments played by each musician, it is only known that Coenraad Rijkel was playing “fagot”, and that an oboe was certainly used for at least two performances. The Hague’s theatre performances included French works not just by Lully, but also Destouches and Campra. All of the known French works from both theatres include indications for oboes.
The settings in which double-reed instruments are referred to in fictional works include pastoral scenes, outdoor dancing scenes, military scenes, and religious scenes. These settings are a reflection of the public perception of double-reed instruments, demonstrating the instruments’ variety of roles in society. Interestingly, some of these fictional depictions include instruments from both the German and French traditions (as Haka described them). A subject of great interest is which non-double-reed instruments played alongside double-reed instruments. Works of fiction provide examples, principally of trumpets and/or drums. There are also examples of double-reed and string instruments playing together, but no concrete evidence of bands of trumpets, oboes, and violins as an ensemble.
While there are very few surviving names of military double-reed musicians in the Republic, they were certainly present. The predominant military ensemble in the Republic during the period of study was the trumpet band, though double-reed bands were also present early on in the period of study. This, as well as the fact that trumpet bands and double-reed bands were generally listed separately in documents, may imply that they served different roles, even within the same military regiment. Due to a lack of comprehensive primary sources, little can be said as to what exactly these musicians did; however, by the end of the eighteenth century, double-reed instruments played a more important role in the military culture of the Republic. The beginnings of this shift can be seen in the final years of the period of study, when double-reed instruments are mentioned more frequently in association with military regiments.
The greatest portion of known relevant repertoire is music for amateurs, mostly from Amsterdam-based publishers. As the operas of Lully were some of the most popular works in the Republic, it is unsurprising that so many instrumental arrangements of these operas were also produced — generally in three or four parts. Very few of these arrangements prescribe certain instruments, with the majority being for an open instrumentation. Of these arrangements for open instrumentation, almost all of them suit the ambiti of double-reed instruments. Aside from these Lully arrangements, only two sets of works are prescribed for double-reed band; one by Carl Rosier and one by Johann Michael Müller. There are also examples of amateurs playing double-reed instruments in iconography, probably playing well-known popular melodies.
Several works of fiction imply that there is a correlation between double-reed instruments (particularly shawms) and sacredness, often describing the instruments as appropriate for (Christian) worship. Ironically, the overwhelming cultural presence of the Reformed Church essentially prohibited music in churches, aside from vocal and organ music. The little which survives is one undated eighteenth-century document — which briefly refers to how the oboe was used in the Begijnhof’s schuilkerk in Amsterdam — and several double-reed instruments painted on the shutters of the Westerkerk’s rugwerk organ in Amsterdam.
While this study demonstrates the variety of settings in which double-reed instruments could be found in the Republic, it still cannot explain why so many Dutch oboes survive, aside from there being plenty of published music for amateurs to play. No other written historical references to the kleine schalmei have been found, meaning that there is no conclusive repertoire that is certainly intended for this instrument — only repertoire that was not intended for it. With the popularity of double-reed instruments rising throughout the remainder of the eighteenth century, the logical chronological continuation of this study would be to look into the sectors listed in this dissertation, principally the military and theatres. A deeper inquiry into Richard Haka’s relationship with Sweden may also provide a greater insight into both Dutch and Swedish double-reed musicians in the early days of the dissemination of the French oboe.