I produce and write rap music, a broad genre including subgenres such as party rap, mack rap and reality rap (Krims, 2000, pp. 57-74). I primarily create music within the subgenre of trap, also drawing elements from pop music. In my music I utilize autotune heavily as a creative tool, laying weight on creating catchy themes, and establishing a cool atmosphere, rather than focusing on intricate and complex lyricism. Although trap rap is a distant relative to old school rap, it still follows similar principles, attempting to generate evocative lyrics that are masterfully placed over a rhythmical, drum-based beat.
Allan Moore describes style as providing the primary condition for both musical production and reception. He elaborates that styles co-exist at a various levels, and that there are numerous ways of defining them, noting that definitions strongly related to the internal, and musical features are most effective (Moore, 2012, p. 119). Moore imagines style as a constellation of stars, as listeners and artists we all see the same stars, but the way we connect them into constellations can vary depending on one’s perspective. And unlike the stars that are all viewed from the same planet, music can be heard from vastly different places of understanding.
I will adopt Moore’s definition of style, referring to the decisions an artist or band may make in order to play a song in, for instance a “Trap” style rather than a “Hip-Hop” style (Moore, 2012, p. 120).
Ohriner also highlights the importance of rhyming when generating a flow, giving us an example where two songs contain nearly identical tempos and accents, however one seems more self-similar than the other because of the rhyme schemes they use, where both flows contain end rhymes however the one feeling more self-similar also contains an interior rhyme. He also interestingly finds that almost every observer of the genre “has noted, rhyme permeates rap music more than any other expressive form” (Ohriner, 2019b, p. 63). Furthermore, he discusses the purpose rhyme may serve in rap, stating that in relation to flow it result in the facilitation of memorization, and that even though rap contains nearly twice as many words as any other genre, many rappers choose to never write their verses on paper. “Rap’s density in rhyme aids in memory recall for both performers and listeners” (Ohriner, 2019b, p. 64).
Moore describes second person authenticity as “authenticity of experience”, occurring when a performance succeeds in conveying the impression to a listener that their life experiences are being validated, or rather that the music is “telling it like it is” for them. This authenticity is not defined by the performer’s lore or the integrity of the performer, but rather by the performance’s ability to articulate to its listeners a sense of belonging (Moore, 2002, p. 220).
As Moore states “third person authenticity arises when a performer succeeds in conveying the impression of accurately representing the ideas of another, embedded within a tradition of performance.” Noting that Erik Clapton’s appropriation of “the blues” lead to him going back to the roots of blues and working with country blues singer Robert Johnson, and in performing Johnson´s “crossroads” Clapton not only conveys “this is what it´s like to be me” but also “this is what it´s like to be Johnson” (Moore, 2002, p. 218).
In this chapter, I will discuss the theory and terminology that provide the background for my research. This includes terms such as flow, delivery, rhythm and authenticity. Words, their meaning and their usage change and develop over time (Schiffer, 2018). Similarly, rap has evolved with time. Krims (2000) interestingly states that contemporary rap aesthetics are far removed from those of the earlier styles, noting that the flows of rappers represent one of the most profound changes that separate “new-school” from “old-school” where both these terms are everchanging within rap styles themselves (Krims, 2000, p. 49). The following section discusses flow in more detail.
Adam Krims observes that there is not a lot of common language available to describe flow, and therefore he developed his own terminology to categorise styles of rhythmic delivery. “Sung”, for instance, describes rap rhythms and rhymes that are equivalent or parallel to those found in pop and rock music. He labels his next style “effusive,” splitting it into two categories: “percussion-effusive” and “speech-effusive”. These styles oppose one another, where “percussion-effusive” is identified by its focused points of staccato and pointed articulations, while “speech-effusive” tends to feature enunciation and delivery closer to spoken word, often projected little sense of any underlying metric (Krims, 2000, p. 50). Krims describes flow both as “the style of MCing” (Krims, 2000, p. 55) and “the rhythmical styles of MCing” (Krims, 2000, p. 48), highlighting the difficulty of defining flow. This issue is further discussed by Ohriner (2019) who notes that, in combination with the varied use of the word “flow” by MC’s themselves, scholars tend to opt for prescriptive theories, detailing how to create “good” music, or in this case “good” flows. Rather than descriptive theory, which outlines common practices found in exiting music (Ohriner, 2019b, p. 10).
Kyle Adams (2009) describes flow as the metrical and articulative tools used in the delivery of a rapper’s lyrics. Further detailing metrical techniques as:
Detailing metrical techniques as:
- The placement of rhyming and accented syllables.
- The degree of correspondence between syntactic units.
- Measures and the number of syllables per beat.
“Flow” is understood at large by rap enthusiasts as the essence of a rapper’s performance, or what some would describe as “a rappers rap” (Davis, 2017, p. 7). It seems like the definition of flow varies depending on what type of rap you enjoy, or rather what preferences you have. Many see flow as the rhythm and rhyme scheme used (Adams, 2009; Krims, 2000; Edwards, 2009), while others view it more as an abstraction of the performance, including the artists unique delivery: Marcyliena Morgan (2009) states when defining “flow”, “An artist communicates what he or she means, intends, and represents, through symbols, style, and contrasting aspects of artistic and linguistic skill and social life” (Morgan, 2009, p. 82).
Two great examples of the contradictory nature of rap and flow are MF DOOM’s lyrical mastery on the song “Rapp Snitch Knishes” (DOOM, 2004) in contrast to Play Boi Carti’s mythical voice manipulation on the song “@MEH” (Carti, 2020). Although both artists operate within similar constraints and genres, the outcomes are vastly different. Where Playboi Carti puts weight on attitude and style, MF DOOM upweights rhyming and storytelling. Nevertheless, both artists successfully managed to fuse their rap delivery to the beats they chose, and the attitude and delivery they present sound authentic.
“Delivery”, refers to the manner in which something is presented. In the context of rapping, it pertains to how the melodies and lyrics are articulated through the use of one’s voice (Moore, 2012, p. 91).
One might assume that when rapping and talking the only difference is whether it’s on a beat. However, “It is more than just rhythm that differs between the spoken and sung voice” (Moore, 2012, p. 101). Moore defines three registers and explains how they might be perceived. There is the low register, which adds gravity, sexiness or melancholy, (and in some cases, menace). There is a comfortable register, which may be perceived as “normal” and there is a high register, including falsetto, this may be perceived as virtuosic, as embodying physical effort, as light-hearted, depending on the context (Moore, 2012, p. 102).
He further elaborates on how the cavity the artists decide to use to form sound can be utilized as a tool. “A nasal tone could be read as sneering, as distanced, or simply as stylized. Singing from the head can feel weak, careless, or understated. Singing from the throat again appears as ‘normal’. Singing from the chest connotes greater care, presence, power” (Moore, 2012, p. 102).
He also notes that the singer’s attitude toward rhythm and pitch could affect the emotions perceived in a song. Are they singing ahead or behind the beat? Are they singing in a rhythm that mimics the way the words are spoken, or are they being creative with the linguistic syntax? Are they singing precisely in tune or slightly off-pitch? These observations can help us determine whether the singer is conforming to the apparent meaning of the words in the lyrics in the way they are delivered, or if they are clarifying them (Moore, 2012, p. 103).
On a side note, Kari Iveland (2024) states that Norwegian listeners may experience songs differently depending on the language used, with some noting that they find the Norwegian language more intimate and vulnerable, in contrast to English. This can have both advantages and disadvantages for the performer (Iveland, 2024, p.36). “The words we use and the ways we use them therefore matter regardless of form” (Iveland, 2024, p. 35).
It’s interesting to note that Iveland discusses vocal delivery, omitting flow from their analysis. Stating that:
The performance situation, music and vocal timbre can comment, contrast or underline the semantic content of the lyrics. It thus explains how the same song can adapt new layers of meaning depending on the context and who is singing. (Iveland, 2024, p. 35)
Though including flow in his analysis of rap, Kjell Andreas Oddekalv (2022) also distinguishes between flow and delivery. He presents a great example of what one might do during the creative writing process, which raises some interesting questions:
The rapper on the mic might ask ‘should I do it “up” or “down”?’, referring to a choice between two octaves. Similarly, the rapper might try a couple of different melodic variations on a section or try recording the verse with a more relaxed or more aggressive tone. All these different versions and different deliveries have the same flow. (Oddekalv, 2022, p. 14)
One might presume, however, that changing the octave in which one raps their lyrics could affect more than just pitch. A higher-pitched sound requires more effort to produce, and this can convey different emotional tones. When altering both the tone and the feeling, in my opinion one should take into account: Did the artist have to change his way of saying certain words or lines to manage the change in pitch? Similarly, changing delivery from a more relaxed to more aggressive is done not only by the pressure and volume of the lyrics, but also the enunciation of consonants. These changes are ones that cannot be seen within the lyrics but rather heard in the delivery. This could indicate that delivery is a defining part of flow creation, rather than flow being merely a component of a rapper’s delivery. This view contradicts Adams claim that flow “describes all of the rhythmical and articulative features of a rapper’s delivery” (Adams, 2009, p.3).
Vocal timbre refers to the sound produced by the human voice, altered and produced by the larynx and its physical orientation. It reflects both personal identity and current state of mind, which in practice can affect the message being conveyed. (Iveland, 2024, p. 104). Iveland cites Kai Siedenburg, Charalampos Saitis and Stephen McAdams definition of the term vocal timbre, splitting the definition into four distinctions:
- “Timbre is a perceptual attribute” found in the mind of the listener and not in the score or the lyrics.
- “Timbre is both a quality and contributor to source identity” showing that sounds can qualitatively be contrasting even when produced from the same source, and that timbre and its collection of auditory sensory is a contributing factor of identifying sound sources and events.
- “Timbre functions on different scales of detail” where the difference between two sounds can be both subtle or significant.
- “Timbre is a property of fused auditory events” showing that two or more auditory events can fuse together to form one auditory image, contributing to one timbre (Iveland, 2024, p. 104).
Iveland nicely sums up timbre in a musical context, describing it as performative. Emerging from the combination of a musician’s activities and the physical properties of their instrument. Noting that musicians often refer to timbre in choosing their instrument merely by sensing and feeling how it responds (Iveland, 2024, p. 105).
According to Michael Kennedy and Joyce Bourne Kennedy, rhythm, in the full sense of the word entails all aspects pertaining to time in music, for example beats, accents, measures, grouping of notes into beats, the grouping of beats into measures and the grouping of measures into phrases, etc. They argue that when a performer understands and utilizes these factors, we as listeners can feel and say that the performer possesses a “sense of rhythm” (Kennedy, 2007).
Articulation is the act of producing a speech sound or a sequence of speech sounds—for instance, practicing the articulation of a rolling "r" (Nilstun, 2005–2007). More specifically, within phonetics, articulation refers to the modification of the airstream to produce speech, achieved through adjustments in the vocal tract, including the positioning of articulators such as the larynx, tongue, and lips (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2017). I use articulation both as a manner of adding or highlighting rhythms, and as a means of adding unsaid meaning to a performance. For example, one could loudly articulate the “t” in heart or muffle it. Or one could articulate a sentence as if one was drunk adding meaning to the line that otherwise wouldn’t exist. This can be seen a lot in contemporary rap music today, for example in Kendrick Lamar’s song “Not Like Us” he adorns several different voices with different articulations in order to strengthen his message (Lamar, 2024).
Being Authentic is an important quality in all music, but it holds even more significance in rap. Rap is deeply rooted in the feeling of “realness” where listeners are more involved and interested in the background of what’s being said, and why it’s being said. This does not imply that no creative liberties are being used. Where felt necessary for the song, especially in the hook, things may be fabricated or exaggerated.
The topic of authenticity is deep and complex, having been discussed and studied by many scholars alike (see e.g., Johnson, 2000; Fabian, 2001; Wu, 2017; Harrison, 2008). It is an all-encompassing term that affects all forms of expression. Being “real”, “truthful”, “genuine” or “honest” are all aspects of authenticity (Moore, 2002, p. 209). In this research, I will be using Allen Moore’s classification of authenticity. Moore chooses to focus on who, rather than what, is being authentic, splitting his definition into three views: first person authenticity, second person authenticity, and third person authenticity.
Allen Moore’s distinction “First person authenticity” is described as when an “originator (composer/performer) succeeds in conveying the impression that his/her utterance is one of integrity, that it represents an attempt to communicate in an unmediated form with an audience.” He also notes that this is not limited to vocals or lyrics, stating that various particular acts and sonic gestures made by specific artists, to an engaged audience, could be seen as investing authenticity into those acts and gestures. However, the audience does not get engage with these acts, but instead correlating this directly to the originator who performed these gestures (Moore, 2002, p. 214).
Kyle Adams and other contemporary scholars tend to focus on the rhythmical aspects of flow. However, there have been arguments for including techniques such as pitch in the interpretation of flow. Mitchel Ohriner conducts an in-depth dive into the intricacies of pitch, phonetics and intonation used in rap flows (Ohriner, 2019a). This study, however, primarily focuses on “old-school” rap, defined by its sample-based beats and lyrical mastery. This is quite different from modern-day “Trap” defined by its utilization of autotune as an instrument rather than merely a tool for correction and adjustment (Duinker, 2025, p.7). For instance, autotune is used quite harshly in my music, as well as in other contemporary trap music. This removes the slight intricate pitch deviations and some of the timbral qualities found in the human voice. However, it allows the artist to convey feeling and character to the listener that otherwise could not be conveyed (Duinker, 2025, p. 20).
Mitchell Ohriner mentions accents (or accentuations) as a defining element of rap and its flow, outlining three forms of accents. Phenomenal accents arise from acoustic emphasis, for example moments that are louder, higher in pitch or noticeably different from the surrounding context. He describes structural accents as those that occur when “melodies and harmic progressions reach points of arrival” (Ohriner, 2019b, p. 48). Lastly, he describes metric accents as “a hierarchy among the beats of the measure (e.g, the beat 1 understood as stronger than beat 2)” (Ohriner, 2019b, p. 48).
I will not focus on groove or its effects on rap flow further than noting how one flow feels. Thus, I will only briefly mention groove without going in-depth.
Moore describes groove in simple terms, stating it as being a repeating pattern. However, he notes that there is no standard definition for groove. He instead states that groove might be best understood as an interlocking set of repeated ideas or riffs (Moore, 2012 p. 56). Jan Inge Nilsen (2021) gives us a more nuanced description, describing groove as a rhythmic pattern composed of various rhythmic figures in the form of riffs. Groove, as a sounding rhythmic pattern, is a configuration of organized, repeating sonic events in a time course (Nilsen, 2021, p. 37).
Many scholars mention groove and its correlation with bodily movement, some even suggesting the term “groove” is an association facilitated by the rhyming of “groove” and “move” (Ohriner, 2019b, p. 75). Ohriner splits groove into two parts. First, he states that groove is inherently repetitive, the feeling of groove continues to grow as material reiterates, and hence the duration of repetition is important. Secondly, he states that groove is virtual, where the presented groove in a performance “is an approximation or representation of a more general, virtual groove articulated in many performances. Thus, the degree of similarity is also important” (Ohriner, 2019b, p. 83).
Below, I present a diagram that shows my understanding of flow in rap and the key elements that contribute to it.