Feminist perceptions of pornography 

Contemporary perceptions of sexuality have been greatly influenced by social changes and the understanding of sexuality that has evolved since the 1960s. Since the rise of the second wave of feminism and the sexual revolution, two main viewpoints on sex work, especially regarding pornography, have emerged. A negative one - radical feminism and a more positive one - liberal feminism.[1]

Throughout the 1970s, sexuality became a central theme and openness to sexual topics was increasingly becoming associated with oppression rather than liberation, as had been the case in previous years.

Radical Feminism vs. Liberal Feminism

Feminist porn started in the 1980s during a time when feminists in the U.S. were debating the impact of sexual images in society. This debate, often called the "porn wars," lasted over 30 years. Many feminists were concerned about the negative portrayal of women in media and wanted to fight against it, especially by trying to ban pornography, which they saw as harmful.[2]

"Biology has become the common denominator of the social order and the unjust gender order", i.e. the determination of gender and the inequality associated with it. Pornography allegedly depicts the formation of inequality between the genders, which can lead male individuals to act with women according to a pornographic script. “Pornography is perceived as a means of constructing a negative image of women; its definition is the representation of (female) bodies in a sexually explicit manner, resulting in the reduction of women to sexual objects.” These arguments are intrinsically linked to the stance of radical feminism and the associated anti-pornography movement, which strongly opposes pornography and the sex industry in general.[3]

Representatives of the anti-pornography stance, Catharine MacKinnon and Andrea Dworkin, expressed the well-known view of pornography as a violation of women's civil rights and significantly contributed to raising the visibility of the feminist movement at a time when it was losing its prominence.[4]

They collaborated on drafting antipornography legislation and developed many significant theories that became a starting point for antipornography feminism. The theories describe the way gender relations are sexualized, emphasizing the negative and destructive qualities of pornography and its evolving relationship with the status of women in society.[5]

They describe pornography as graphic sexually explicit subordination that involves women being dehumanized, enjoying humiliation or pain, presented in positions of sexual submission and degradation, or reduced to body parts. According to these feminist views, pornography is merely sexually explicit material that not only harms women but also leads to their exploitation and oppression. And since MacKinnon and Dworkin argue that pornography should be understood as the subordination of women (and not just as a cause of subordination), there cannot be purported egalitarian pornography; in other words, equality in pornography does not exist. Some liberal 

philosophers considered their clarification inadequate and defended pornography even while denying that it has any intrinsic value. [1]

Radical feminism also considered sexual liberalization as merely an extension of male privilege. It is important to note that this debate concerns transgender and homosexual women, who may have been primarily behind the explicitness of the anti-sexual stance. This was a significant part of the feminist movement.

This side gradually resorted to separatism from the radical feminists. The reason for this was the accusation against heterosexual women for their constant loyalty to men which they express primarily through their sexuality and thus not only go against their own convictions but support the continued existence of patriarchy.[2]

FEMINIST PERCEPTIONS OF PORNOGRAPHY 

Contemporary perceptions of sexuality have been greatly influenced by social changes and the understanding of sexuality that has evolved since the 1960s. Since the rise of the second wave of feminism and the sexual revolution, two main viewpoints on sex work, especially regarding pornography, have emerged. A negative one - radical feminism and a more positive one - liberal feminism.1

Throughout the 1970s, sexuality became a central theme and openness to sexual topics was increasingly becoming associated with oppression rather than liberation, as had been the case in previous years.

Radical Feminism vs. Liberal Feminism

Feminist porn started in the 1980s during a time when feminists in the U.S. were debating the impact of sexual images in society. This debate, often called the "porn wars," lasted over 30 years. Many feminists were concerned about the negative portrayal of women in media and wanted to fight against it, especially by trying to ban pornography, which they saw as harmful.2

"Biology has become the common denominator of the social order and the unjust gender order", i.e. the determination of gender and the inequality associated with it. Pornography allegedly depicts the formation of inequality between the genders, which can lead male individuals to act with women according to a pornographic script. “Pornography is perceived as a means of constructing a negative image of women; its definition is the representation of (female) bodies in a sexually explicit manner, resulting in the reduction of women to sexual objects.” (Lišková, 2009) These arguments are intrinsically linked to the stance of radical feminism and the associated anti-pornography movement, which strongly opposes pornography and the sex industry in general.3

Representatives of the anti-pornography stance, Catharine MacKinnon and Andrea Dworkin, expressed the well-known view of pornography as a violation of women's civil rights and significantly contributed to raising the visibility of the feminist movement at a time when it was losing its prominence.4

They collaborated on drafting antipornography legislation and developed many significant theories that became a starting point for antipornography feminism. The theories describe the way gender relations are sexualized, emphasizing the negative and destructive qualities of pornography and its evolving relationship with the status of women in society.5

They describe pornography as graphic sexually explicit subordination that involves women being dehumanized, enjoying humiliation or pain, presented in positions of sexual submission and degradation, or reduced to body parts. According to these feminist views, pornography is merely sexually explicit material that not only harms women but also leads to their exploitation and oppression. And since MacKinnon and Dworkin argue that pornography should be understood as the subordination of women (and not just as a cause of subordination), there cannot be purported egalitarian pornography; in other words, equality in pornography does not exist. Some liberal philosophers considered their clarification inadequate and defended pornography even while denying that it has any intrinsic value.6

Radical feminism also considered sexual liberalization as merely an extension of male privilege. It is important to note that this debate concerns transgender and homosexual women, who may have been primarily behind the explicitness of the anti-sexual stance. This was a significant part of the feminist movement.

This side gradually resorted to separatism from the radical feminists. The reason for this was the accusation against heterosexual women for their constant loyalty to men which they express primarily through their sexuality and thus not only go against their own convictions but support the continued existence of patriarchy.7

“Porn is the theory, rape is the practice.” A group called Women Against Pornography (WAP) worked hard to ban explicit sexual content. However, other feminists, including Lisa Duggan and Nan D. Hunter, disagreed with WAP. They thought WAP was working too closely with conservative groups which was a step backward for women’s rights.8

In response, a community of sex workers and sex-positive feminists joined forces to support freedom of expression and create what we now call feminist porn. This movement aimed to celebrate sexuality in a way that empowers women and sexual minorities.

The period preceding the feminist pornography wars is often referred to as the "golden age of porn". From the early 1970s to the early 1980s, this period was distinguished by the quality of the production of big-budget feature films, as well as the establishment of the first support group, "Club 90" whose members included sexologist Annie Sprinkle, writer Veronica Vera, and porn actress Candida Royalle. In 1984, the feminist art collective "Carnival Knowledge" asked Club 90 to participate in the festival "The Second Coming" aiming to publicly pose the question, "Is there a feminist pornography?" 

In the same year, the aforementioned Candida Royalle founded the company Femme Production. With the support of Club 90 and a broader community, a new genre of pornography from a female perspective was created. Over the following years, this genre of "porn for women" gradually grew and new approaches and opportunities emerged for women to participate in the shift of pornography which “was guided by the formula of softer, gentler, and more romantic porn with elements and stories of higher production values.”9

The perspective of liberal, or sex-positive feminism, discussed possibilities of female empowerment to enhance sexual freedom in the pornography industry which in this sense is not only viewed negatively but could serve as a tool for potential expression, individual behavior, and the exploration of sexuality and10 to establish equality, authenticity, and empowerment of femininity at its very core - at the heart of pornography. They do not reject pornography as such but aim to neutralize content that seems unacceptable or patriarchal to their position. Engaging in the development of the pornography industry at its very heart may signify its true reform.11

Proposed categories that describe the goals and requirements of feminist pornography: (1) it must include positive representations of consent and communication, (2) it must equally focus on the desires and pleasures of all participants, (3) it must include a diversity of body types, orientations, and identities, and (4) it must be produced ethically.12

Feminist pornography explores ideas of desire, agency, power, beauty, and pleasure in complex and challenging ways. This includes looking at pleasure within inequality, facing injustice, and challenging gender hierarchies, as well as both heterosexual and homosexual norms. The goal is to challenge traditional definitions of sex and broaden the understanding of sex as an erotic activity, an expression of identity, a power exchange, a cultural product, and even a form of politics. 

It creates new images and develops its own style and symbols to challenge established sexual norms and conversations. Feminist porn creators focus on their production practices and how they treat performers and sex workers. Unlike mainstream adult entertainment, they aim to create a fair, safe, ethical, and consensual work environment, often collaborating with the people they feature. Ultimately, feminist porn sees sexual representation—and its production—as a way to resist, intervene, and bring about change.13

The last quarter of the 20th century was characterized by the permeation of pornography into everyday life and the aforementioned sexual freedom. Some viewed this very positively, while others, of course, opposed it. With the development of information and communication technologies, and most importantly, the rise of the internet, the spread of pornography became completely irreversible. The internet is both the largest source of the production and of the commodification of sexuality.14