I. Introduction
This exposition is my quest for madness in performance. On this search, I have been confronted with the aspect of genuinity. I understand genuinity in performance as an element of sincerity and honesty, a manifestation of the performer’s personal and bodily sensations, expressed through the artistic material. An important premise for this quest has been the distinction made by the French painter, Charles Le Brun (1619-1690). When he conveyed his theory of passions, or expressions, on canvas, he strongly distinguished the difference between painting tense muscles, and painting genuine expression1. While copying movements and facial expressions from my chosen era could be a valuable way to gain a visual vocabulary of the time, it doesn’t necessarily result in a genuine performance. In order to gain genuinity, one has to channel a reaction and produce an impulse, and although it will be planned in a performance, it has to seem spontaneous. The dissection that Charles Le Brun went through to create visual passions, is essentially what I am attempting to do with Mad Songs in this master research.
Methodology
Being a singer, I know the obvious way to work towards an historically informed performance would be to look at the treatises for singers. However, since the Mad Songs were mainly performed by actresses who sang, and not singers who acted, I have decided to focus on the historical sources on acting and declamation. Using a method of embodiment, strongly influenced by the research of The Dutch Historical Acting Collective2,I have created a practical handbook in which I explore the embodiment of the emotional journey through the Mad Song «Restless in thought, disturbed in mind» by John Eccles (1668-1735). I have put together a historically informed guide, accompanied by my own demonstrations, documented on film. The videos will serve as the artistic manifestation of, and reflection on the sources I have explored. There have been many studies on embodying historically informed acting methods3, but few have done a practice-based research that is documented today. The members of the The Dutch Historical Acting Collective, and especially João Luís Paixão, Laila Cathleen Neuman and Jed Wentz have been valuable guides, and I hope that my research can be a contribution to the field, emphasizing the singer’s perspective. In my quest for genuinity, I have emphasized the embodied passion’s influence on my voice in singing and declaming, rather than letting singing technique conduct the interpretation.
To inform my process of embodiment, I have chosen sources that either are contemporary to, or in some way correspond with the Mad Songs. As a way to deepen my understanding of the musical material, I will investigate how these sources can be interpreted in light of the historical context, and how they mirror and inform each other, art and society, through an hermeneutical approach4. The historical context of the Mad Songs will also serve as a substantial base for my practical research. The society which this repertoire emerged from, was permeated by a fascination for madness, the tourism culture around House of Bedlam being the core of the movement. The Mad Songs of the late 17th Century were mainly written for the theatre stage, and an understanding of the songs also demands an understanding of their surroundings and performers. Hence, I have also dedicated a chapter to the theatre culture, as it was the ultimate mirroring of the culture exposing madness. In this way, I will build on a historical understanding of madness and Bedlam, but I will also look through the scope of Michel Foucault (1926-1984) and his "History of Madness," as he is being a dominant voice in the modern interpretation of madness in the 17th and 18th century.
This exposition touches upon relevant issues that have been discussed throughout centuries of human history, such as the relation between body and soul, the theory of passions, mental illnesses and discrimination. However, my contribution is not to provide an historical overview of these subjects, but rather step into a specific time and place, being the context of the Mad Songs, the late 17th century of England.
I will not interpret the Mad Songs musically from a theoretical stand. Neither will I look into the historically informed body gestures, but rather focus on making the historically informed understanding of passions and embodiment techniques part of performance.
In this introduction, I will give the background for my choice of topic and discuss the main sources that I use in the handbook.
I.I Why Mad Songs?
In this project, the Mad Songs are a tool to access a broader palette of expression in performance. I will address the definition of Mad Songs in Chapter III, but the main principle is extreme and quick shifts in emotional states and passions. As a classical singer, I have often felt trapped. Trapped in the conception of what a classical singer should do, controlled by the expectations to have an exquisite technique or sing beautifully. I don’t believe that beauty suits each emotion you want to express. Luckily, I have had supervisors telling me that singing technique is all about connecting with your real emotions, and this approach has essentially become the core of my artistic expression. It might sound as a contradiction at first, to try and obtain a historically informed yet accessible genuinity on stage. But in the time of Mad Songs, the aspect of genuinity was crucial in acting. Before acting out the desired passion, the actor had to embody it, as we can read in Aaron Hill’s (1685-1750) An Essay on the Art of Acting:
“To act a passion, well, the actor never must attempt its imitation, ‘till his fancy has conceived so strong an image, or idea, of it, as to move the same impressive springs within his mind, which form that passion, when ‘tis undesigned, and natural."5
The methods and theories from the repertoire's own time emphasize natural expressions on stage, and they are therefore an obvious way to approach my goal of a genuine performance. But even though I have a wish to base my performance on true bodily sensations, I do not wish to truly go mad. Taking a closer look at the background of the music and how the songs portray mental patients, and especially women, one will uncover a bizarre world and meet characters that are easy to parody. Even so, the repertoire itself is incredibly rich and varied, and rather than diagnose the character portrayed, I will interpret the repertoire into the context of the theatre. With this historically informed interpretation working alongside my own musicality, I hope to bridge the gap between now and then, and make a performance that can catch the audience of today.
I.II The Sensitive Soul and the Passions
From where did the passions originate, according to the 17th century scholars? This question was part of a long tradition, since antiquity, discussing the relationship between body and soul. Concentrating my research on the late 17th century, I have chosen to include the English philosopher, Walter Charleton, a contemporary of the Mad Songs, and his work, Natural History of the Passions. Though often overlooked as a philosophic thinker, Charleton, through his method of collecting and reinterpreting his contemporaries’ ideas, provides a lens into this time and place6. His Natural History is often seen in context with Descartes Les Passions de l’âme7, which, in its time, provided a groundbreaking understanding of the passions as being a part of the body as well as the soul, not harmful to the spirits when controlled by the rational mind8. This psychological approach is adopted by Charleton, who writes: “there are in every individual Man, two distinct Souls, coexistent, and conjoin’d ; one by which he is made a Reasonable creature, another by which he becomes also a living, and Sensitive one.”9 The two souls, having two completely different agendas and wills, were believed to stand in an ongoing conflict that could evolve into violent outbursts. “Upon this War depend all the Passions by which the restless Mind of Man is so variously, and many times also violently agitated, to his almost perpetual disquiet and vexation : and upon the success of it depends all the happiness, or misery of not only his present life, but that which is to come.” 10 The Sensitive Soul was believed to be the inferior of the two, the receiver of impressions from outside the body, while the Rational would conduct the reaction, according to human ‘Reason, Judgement and Will.’11 However, human nature also inhabited a spontaneity and immediacy that originated from the Sensitive Soul, and was believed to create life and passions in a human being.
In my exposition, I will not address the philosophical understanding of passions in the 17th century in detail, but rather focus on how the results present themselves in expression. However, when reading the theories of the artist Charles Le Brun, especially in his lecture “Conférence sur l'expression générale et particulière,” it is clear that a certain knowledge of the science behind the passions was necessary in order to portray believable expressions on canvas. He writes:
“First, a passion is a movement of the sensitive part of the soul, which is designed to pursue that which the soul thinks to be for its good, or to avoid that which it believes to be hurtful to itself. Ordinarily, anything which causes a passion in the soul produces some action in the body.”12
To further understand the connection between body and soul, we look to Charleton, who writes that the Sensitive Soul had taken its form from the body it lived in, and existed as “a most subtle body contained in a gross one,”13 it could not be experienced through physical attributes, but by its effects. The Sensitive Soul possessed a power over the instincts (Animal Spirits) and the inner system of the body, as described here by Charleton: “For, when any object is represented under the appearance of good or evil to us in particular ; instantly the Sensitive Soul is moved to embrace, or avoid it ; and imployes not only the Animal Spirits, her Emissaries, but the blood also, and other humors universally diffused through the body, and even the solid parts too, as instruments to effect her design.”14
In order to explain what the movement in the Sensitive Soul means, Charleton compares it to the nature of a flame, never “at one constant rate,” but according to the influence of the passions: “it blazeth up to a dangerous excess, as it usually happens in great Anger and Indignation ; (...) it is in danger of being blown out, by suddain and surprizing Joy ; or almost suffocated, by unexpected Terror, or astonishing Grief.”15 The reaction in the Sensitive Soul causes a reaction in the body, which eventually manifests in expression. Le Brun, attempting to capture the chain of events that leads to expression, writes: “(...)it is my opinion that the soul receives the impressions of the passions in the brain, and that it feels the effects of them in the heart.”16 The heart’s job is to “heat and rarify” the blood, “ in such a way that it produces a thin air of spirit, which rises to the brain and fills its cavities.”17 Through the nerves, the brain communicates to the relevant muscles what movement to execute, and this results in the passionate expressions that Le Brun tries to represent: Fear, Despair, Joy, Hope etc.
Charles Le Brun’s highest goal was to reproduce genuineness on canvas. Seeking a full knowledge of the nature of the passions, he believed he could understand the visual representation more thoroughly. One would think that the visual artists had mastered the facial expression by the 17th century, but as the art historian Jennifer Montagu (1931-) writes: “(…)still in the seventeenth century, when facility in perspective and spatial construction, and the accurate proportion of bodies could be taken for granted in a competently trained artist, ability to render human expression was considered a quality worthy of remark.”18 In his quest for a genuine representation of the passions on a canvas, Le Brun highlights the main difference between depicting a human expression and painting wrinkled muscles - “(...) expression in real life is essentially a movement of the features.”19 But as performers of music and theatre don’t have the disadvantage of a frozen expression, but are constantly moving their features, they (and I) therefore are much more equipped when it comes to genuinely representing the passions in art.
During the 17th century, music was believed to be the art form with the closest connection to the passions. The comparison between the physical “strings” of the body, being veins, muscles, and nerves, and the musical instrument’s strings; as well as the soul as a spirit, and the movement of the air in music being its “physical counterpart,”20 made Claude Menestrier claim: “so nothing is more natural to him [man] than harmony, especially in Joy, which, opening the heart to the effusion of the spirits, carries them in abundance to every part of the body.”21 When consciously used, the music could manipulate the audience to feel specific passions, as Marin Mersenne writes in his Harmonie Universelle: “for it seems that that there is no more powerful means to excite the passions of the audience than to use the same tempi and movements as are used by the very passions themselves in those who are affected by them.”22 To match specific tempi and movements with specific passions, is a hard task. But in music, as well as in passion, there is no medium more revealing than the voice. As infants without language, we express our wishes with the melody of the passion, not words. I will, therefore, let my voice conduct the connection between the two, using the art of declamation as my tool.
"Expression is the modulating or regulating the organ of the voice to tones of gentleness or force, according to the nature and degree of feeling, or passion expressed in words. Expression is the natural language of emotion. It is, in Elocution, to a certain extent, a vocal imitation of passion."23
I.III Nature in Art and Speech
The concept of passions in art are based on natural principles. However, when presented in art, the passions are refined and modulated according to the style, era and medium. When Le Brun was convinced he understood the principles of the passions in the body, “he would be free to work not as a slavish copyist of nature, subject to her caprices, whims and deficiencies, but as an independent creator, producing his own images according to the same principles. By following the processes of nature he would arrive at the same results; indeed, by this means he could improve upon nature, for his expressions would be free of the accidental blemishes of the imperfect world, subject to his complete control, purified of all ambiguities, cross-currents, or fortuitous obstacles, and held within the bounds of such decorum as he chose to impose.”24 Charles Le Brun’s theories and illustrations are my tools towards historically informed facial expressions, but in order to transfer this to my speech, I have used George Vandenhoff’s (1820-1885) The Art of Elocution and his chapter on Passion. Like Le Brun, his conviction is that one is in need of tools and guidance to execute what nature demands from us. “Because were we to leave nature to do her own work, we should never emerge from a rude state of nature : her work would be ferox, dura, aspera [fierce, hard, rough].”25
Even though Vandenhoff’s treatise is written much later than the Mad Songs, he stands in a tradition of oral delivery that is much closer to principles of the late 17th century, than that of today. I will illustrate my point by referring to an early recording of “Ophelia’s Mad Scene” from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, performed by Ellen Terry (1847-1928) in 1911. Her way of delivering the different passions, using the legato in her speaking voice, adjusting the pitch of her voice to the emotions, and adding effects such as trembling and squeaking is remarkably different from performances of today. Of course, the 17th century is still far away from the era of Vandenhoff and Terry, but taking into consideration similarities in the performative circumstances of the eras - theatres without microphones, intimate halls and a society permeated by rhetorical principles in public speaking, we can narrow the gap and rather find the connecting factors.
https://youtu.be/R8uPKtVsG5Y?si=K9X0ikCczLODEOMC start at 1:44
The Art of Elocution is written as a practical guide to the performer, and on my journey of execution (of the Mad Songs) I have chosen to focus on the part of the book that is connected to the passions. Vandenhoff emphasizes the use of "The Crowning Graces of Elocution": Intonation, expression and energy26, and within these I will take a closer look at the part about expression. Even though I won’t follow the full didactic method, I will attempt to do what Vandenhoff calls: “the highest triumph of Elocution ; —the truthful utterance of intense and passionate feeling.” To illustrate his method, Vandenhoff has used a poem by William Collins (1721-1759): "The Passions: An Ode to Music" as a guide through the different emotions, which I will also use as a tool in the same way for my repertoire.
I.IV Aaron Hill’s An Essay on the Art of Acting and its background
We have finally arrived at my main influencer, Aaron Hill, whose didactic theory has been a clear guideline into the field of historically informed embodiment. As Le Brun and Charleton, he has based his techniques on natural principles, but shaped them to fit the art. The Mad Songs were meant for the theatre, its performers being actresses, and an insight into Aaron Hill’s treatise is therefore a valuable bridge into the mind of the 17th century actress.
Hill saw his task as a guide and critic of actors, and presented a method to instruct them in gaining a genuine and convincing expression on stage. Expressing passions is strongly connected to the art of rhetoric, and its fundament, lying in “a body of theory surviving from classical antiquity,”28 connects this art to poetry, music, theatre and dance. Montagu writes: “All these arts had in common the aim of arousing the appropriate emotion in the spectator, but in none was this of such vital importance as in the art of rhetoric.”29 A carrying concept was the three aims of an orator, “docere, delectare, movere,”30 “to instruct, to please and to touch”31 as stated by the Roman politican, lawyer and author Cicero (106 bc-43 bc), and that also became St Augustine’s three aims of preaching32. “For Hill, the goal of all dramatic poetry was instruction, rather than mere entertainment. Moral lessons could only be transmitted if the players profoundly moved the audience.”33 During the 1730s, after his own play having failed in 1731, he became “intensely, perhaps even obsessively involved in the London theatre scene as a playwright, critic, acting coach, would-be manager and reformer.”34 This culminated in An Essay on the Art of Acting, published posthumously in 1953. It is considered unfinished, but is based on his earlier writings, and I will discuss its background here.
In 1735, Hill presented his didactic system in the magazine The Prompter, a paper he founded with William Popple, a contemporary playwright, in 1734. The text is shaped as a didactic poem, and called “The Actor’s Epitome,” and it encourages the actor to “prepare his body by cultivating a state neither rigid nor slack, but rather at once free of muscle tension and highly alert (‘Pointedly Earnest’). Hill here works ‘from outside in,’ but in an unconventional manner. Rather than imposing stereotypical signifiers of affect directly onto the body, he advises the actor to prepare the body to receive impulses from the imagination.”35He strongly emphasizes the connection between imagination and muscular movement that creates expression, and it is tempting to draw lines to Le Brun’s descriptions where the passions are always activated from outside. Here follows a passage from the poem, instructing the performer to first form a conception of the passion in his imagination, allowing the body to be influenced by the image, the order being the face, the voice, the muscles and finally the soul, the latter providing the most profound manifestation.
“Be, what you seem.—Each pictur’d Passion weigh;
Fill, first, your Thoughts, with All, your Words must say. Strong, yet distinguish’d, let Expression paint:
Not straining mad, nor negligently faint.
On rising Spirits, let your Voice take Wing:
And Nerves, elastic, into Passion, spring.
Let ev’ry Joint keep TIME; each Sinew bend:
And the Shot SOUL, in every Start, ASCEND”36
Later in December 1735, The Prompter published the scientific explanation for Hill’s didactics:
“WITHOUT entering into the Disputes of Philosophers, concerning the SEAT of the Soul, It will suffice for my present Intention, to assign a Throne to the IMAGINATION, upon her little Gland, in the Middle of the Brain: whence the Animal Spirits, (surrounding her, like Life-Guards) are detach’d, for Execution of her Orders, into Every Part of her Empire, the Body, by a Conveyance, with the Blood, and the Humours.”37
Hill emphasized that the animal spirits “first made their presence known in the face; most specifically, in the eye.”38 (The reader hopefully remembers how Walter Charleton described the Sensitive Soul to have a power over the inner functions of the body, and especially the Animal Spirits.) He further illustrates their nature in the passions:
“there are DEGREES, in the Motions here assign’d to the Spirits, conformable to their different Purposes. — In the soft, and desirable Passions, They SLIDE, Sweet and serenely; while, in the Angry, and Violent, they RUSH, stormy, and turbulent; swelling, wild, and irregular, like the Starts, they produce, in Mens [sic] Tempers.”39
When the actor allows the imagination to create expression and muscular movement, the voice and gestures would also be affected and create a believable and genuine passion. As Jed Wentz, one of the members of The Dutch Historical Acting Collective writes: “The resulting acting was natural because it activated the body’s natural affective system, and would cause the audience to feel those alarms and distresses that Hill believed were necessary for their moral improvement, and for the success of tragedy on the stage.”40
In 1746, Hill published another didactic poem, The Art of Acting (not to be confused with the Essay with almost the same name), and here, he presents the “mazy Round,” a concept both Wentz and I have used in our practical research:
“See Art’s short Path! —’tis easy to be found,
Winding, delightfull, thro’ the mazy Round!
[...]
Still, as the Nerves constrain, the Looks obey,
And what the Look enjoins, the Nerves display:
Mutual their Aid, reciprocal their Strain,
[...]
’Tis Cause, and Consequence”41.
This concept is what Wentz describes as: “(…) a somatic shortcut to triggering multifarious manifestations of affect in the body.”42 Where imagination fails to awaken a natural reaction in the body, preparing the body for the passion with the fitting muscular tension, facial expression and look, could awaken the inner process of feeling a true emotion. The descriptions of the fitting preparations are, amongst other instructions, what one can find in An Essay on the Art of Acting. In the embodiment-part of this exposition, I have used them as guidelines when embodying the passions in my work with the mad song “Restless in thought.”43
In An Essay on the Art of Acting, Hill addresses ten ‘dramatic passions’: joy, anger, pity, hatred, wonder, love, grief, fear, scorn and jealousy. However, we know from his letters to the actor David Garrick (1717-1779) that he was originally going to address other ones as well - more complex passions that mixed characteristics from the ten main passions:
“THERE are other passions, of a complex kind; which cannot be reckon’d as dramatic ones, and yet are to be represented, by subtracting from ’em. As, when you are painting hope, you borrow half your colouring from joy; but take the other half from grief, because hope is not certainty: ’tis mixed with doubt, and therefore, tho’ it asks a smiling face, and elevation of the eye-brow, yet it leaves a kind of languid tone upon the muscles. There are twelve, or fifteen of these complex passions, which I will distinguish in another letter.”44
Finally, Hill sums up his four points towards gaining a true sensation of passion on stage:
“1stly, THE imagination must conceive a strong idea of the passion.
2dly, BUT that idea cannot strongly be conceived, without impressing its own form upon the muscles of the face.
3dly, NOR can the look be muscularly stamp’d, without communicating, instantly, the same impression, to the muscles of the body.
4thly, THE muscles of the body, (brac’d, or flack, as the idea was an active or passive one) must, in their natural, and not to be avoided consequence, by impelling or retarding the flow of the animal spirits, transmit their own conceiv’d sensation, to the sound of the voice, and to the disposition of the gesture.”45
These points, as well as the “mazy Round-system” have been my guideline when approaching the different passions in my chosen Mad Song.
The Essay’s relevance in its time and when working with the Mad Songs
An Essay on the Art of Acting is taken from The Works of the Late Aaron Hill, and it includes, alongside the famous essay, lots of theatrical works and poems that worked in line with his method. “The inclusion of these key acting texts in the The Works of the Late Aaron Hill, Esq. meant that they were very widely disseminated indeed: the publication had a subscription list of 1,400 names, which Pat Rogers has qualified as ‘impressive’ and ranked at ‘about twentieth among known eighteenth- century subscription lists’.”46 The vast popularity, however, can, according to Wentz, also be explained by the supporting attitude that people may have felt for the family left behind after his death, rather than a major interest in his works47. The reception of the work throughout the 18th century was somewhat varying, and it was mostly the Essay that was discussed, as it is seen as the most concise description of Hill’s didactic method, and his “mazy Round-system” was valued by many actors of the time.
It is hard to say, almost 300 years after the publication of his works, whether Hill was progressive or not, but many aspects48 link him to the acting style of the late 17th century, and therefore, close to the peak of the Mad Songs. “Perhaps he could better be described as an advocate for the renewal of a manner of acting that was temporarily lost (during a period in which superb actors were scarce), rather than the creator of something that was entirely new?”49 - It is precisely this point that makes Hill even more relevant for my research. In my quest for an historically informed performance of the Mad Songs, I have chosen to make Aaron Hill’s An Essay on the Art of Acting one of my main guides when it comes to the process of embodiment. Both because of its author’s emphasis on genuinity, and because Hill’s acting idols are from the turn of the century - which means they were active in the peak years of the Mad Songs.
I.V Reflections
Through my reading of my chosen sources, I have interpreted that in the 17th-century, they understood the passions as the manifestation of a linked body and soul. Charles Le Brun thoroughly investigates the inner chain of events in a human leading to an outwards expression; while Aaron Hill, investigating the other way around, emphasizes how a conception of a passion in the imagination can provoke a physical reaction, and thus channel a genuine feeling in the soul. Basing one’s art on natural principles, and when allowing one’s medium to be affected, one will obtain a genuine expression. However, this doesn’t mean that one shouldn’t allow for modification, as both Le Brun and Vandenhoff point out. As the 17th century’s art often either exaggerated or refined the reality, a shaping of one’s natural instincts according to the time and place of investigation is needed to make the expression fit for art. A mastering of one’s emotional sensations as well as historically informed expression, is what is demanded of me to do my sources justice.
Footnotes:
1: LeBrun 1698.
2: Wentz 2022.
3: As described in Jed Wentz’s article, Wentz 2022.
4: Gilje 2019.
5: Hill 1753, p. 355.
6: Sipowicz 2022.
7: Descartes 1649.
8: ibid, summary.
9: Charleton 1701, p. 53-54 art. 5, And therefore he seems to have also a Sensitive Soul.
10: Charleton 1701, p. 54, art. 6, That there by are in every individual Man two distinct Souls. coexistent, argued from the civil War observed betwixt them.
11: Charleton 1701, art. 16: An enquiry concerning the Knowledge whereby Brutes are directed in actions voluntary.
12: LeBrun 1698, translated in: Montagu 1994, p. 126.
13:Charleton 1701, p. 14, article 6. a Sensitive Soul imagined to be of the same Figure also with the Body wherein it is contained.
14: Charleton 1701, p. 70-1, art. 14.The other, manifest in all Passions.
15: Charleton 1701, p. 24-25, art. 12, To what various Mutations and irregular Commotions a Sensitive Soul is subject from her own Passions.
16: LeBrun 1698, translated in: Montagu 1994 p. 126.
17: ibid.
18: Montagu 1994, p. 1.
19: ibid.
20: Menestrier 1681, pp. 101-2, translated in:Montagu 1994 p. 54.
21: ‘Il n’est donc rien de plus naturel à l’homme que l’Harmonie, particulièrement dans la joie, qui ouvrant le coeur à l’effusion des Esprits, les port en abondance par tout le corps’, Menestrier 1699, pp. 167-8, translated in:Montagu 1994, p. 54.
22: ‘…car il semble qu’il n’y a nul moyen plus puissant pour exciter les passions des Auditeurs que d’user des messes temps & mouvemens dont se servent les mesmes passions dans ceux qui en sont touchez’, Marselle 1636, quoted in:Mace 1964, p. 288.
23: Vandenhoff 1846, pp. 168-9.
24: Montagu 1994, p. 2.
25: Vandenhoff 1846, preface, p. 18.
26: Vandenhoff 1846, p. 144.
27: ibid.
28: Montagu 1994, p.50.
29: ibid.
30: Cicero -46.
31: Montagu 1994, p. 50.
32: Augustine 426, 4.74-86.
33: Wentz 2022, p. 159.
34: ibid, p. 161.
35: ibid p. 164.
36: Hill 1735, quoted in: Wentz 2022, p. 166.
37: Hill 1735, quoted in: Wentz 2022, p. 166.
38: Wentz 2022, p. 166.
39: Hill 1735, quoted in: Wentz 2022, p. 167.
40: Wentz 2022, p. 167.
41: Hill 1746, p. 11, quoted in: Wentz 2022, p. 175.
42: Wentz 2022, p. 192.
43: Eccles 1695.
44: Hill 1753, Vol. II, pp. 383-4, quoted in: Wentz 2022, p. 178.
45: Hill 1753, p. 356.
46: Wentz 2022, p. 178, he refers to Pat Rogers’ article:Rogers 1986, 147-162.
47: Wentz 2022, p. 178.
48: Some of these are described in Wentz 2022.
49: Wentz 2022, p. 195.