1.3.1. Integrating Musical Skills
It is important to understand that mastering the skill of playing by ear is not a straightforward, linear process marked by constant progress. Instead, it requires approaching the skill from multiple perspectives simultaneously. In this section, a comparison of different pedagogical models is presented to better understand how playing by ear connects with other musical skills and how an integrated approach can support its development. This section will also explore the specific considerations and nuances involved in teaching adult learners.
Research, such as McPherson's model (Figure 4), helps to clarify the significant benefits of playing by ear on a musician's overall development. McPherson's integrated model explores the connections between different aspects of musical performance —sight-reading, performing rehearsed music, playing from memory, playing by ear, and improvising— and environmental factors such as early exposure, enriching activities, length, and quality of study. His research highlights how these variables influence each other, with thicker lines in the diagram representing stronger influences. McPherson's longitudinal studies show that early exposure to informal activities like ear-playing and improvisation positively impacts later musical development, including both creative and re-creative performances. Musicians who play by ear often adapt or vary the original music, creating unique interpretations (McPherson, 2022).
Other studies, such as the research led by Paul Craenen titled Theory in Practice (Konings et al., 2020), emphasize the critical role of music theory in music education and highlight educators' efforts to make it more practically relevant through curricular reform. The report describes how the curriculum was redesigned to prioritize practical skills—particularly aural perception and improvisation—placing aural skills at the center of music theory instruction. This shift aimed to make music theory more accessible and useful for students. In rethinking the role of theory, the project focused on strengthening the connections between different aspects of musical literacy, combining theoretical knowledge with practical application. To support this aim, existing pedagogical models—including those by De Vree (Figure 5) and Graybill (Figure 6)—were analyzed and compared as part of a refined framework for integrated music learning (Konings et al., 2020).
Figure 5. Model "De didaktiek van de instrumentale en vocale muziekles" by By Vree, T. de, 1988. Adapted from "Theory in practice: Analysing music theory" Research report. The Royal Conservatory of The Hague, Lectorate Music, Education & Society. p.7. Copyright 2020 by Royal Conservatoire The Hague (the Netherlands).
Figure 6. Six Modalities according to Graybill, from "Activating Aural Imagery through Keyboard Harmony" by Graybill, 2018. Adapted from "Theory in practice: Analysing music theory" . Research report. The Royal Conservatory of The Hague, Lectorate Music, Education & Society. p.4. Copyright 2020 Royal Conservatoire The Hague (the Netherlands).
The model proposed by Konings et al. (2020), captured in Figure 7, integrates the structural elements outlined by De Vree —sound, symbol, name, and instrument— with Graybill’s six modalities: hearing, playing, singing, notating, reading, and conceptualizing. In this framework, the modalities function as processes or actions that actively link the structural elements, providing a dynamic and interconnected view of how musical skills are acquired and developed.
Figure 7. The model based on De Vree and McPherson combined with the modalities of Graybill. From "Theory in practice: Analysing music theory" . Research report. The Royal Conservatory of The Hague, Lectorate Music, Education & Society. p.7. Copyright 2020 by Royal Conservatoire The Hague (the Netherlands).
- Sound is linked to hearing and singing, representing activities where sound is perceived or produced.
- Symbol involves reading and notating, translating musical notation into sound or vice versa.
- Name relates to conceptualizing, where musical phenomena are identified and labeled.
- Instrument ties to playing, focusing on the physical or imagined execution of music.
This integration demonstrates how different modalities can enrich and interconnect structural elements, supporting a holistic approach to musical literacy (Konings et al., 2020).
The "clean model" derived from this framework, represented in Figure 8, serves as a versatile tool for educators, students and curriculum designers. Educators can design lessons that target underdeveloped connections or elements, while students can use it to self-assess. The model supports a "sound-first" philosophy, much like language acquisition. This approach fosters inner hearing and improves students’ ability to "think in sound," strengthening their overall musicianship. Moreover, the model underscores the importance of balancing and interconnecting all modalities and elements, ensuring students develop comprehensive musical skills (Konings et al., 2020).
